LIBRARY OF CONGRESS. 



.dJj2- 

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 



'^.^ 



PEINCIPLES AND PEACTICE 



OF 



TEAOHINa 



BT 



JAMES JOHOISTNOT. 



t' 



I 






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.^ OF CO: 



:i*VR,(i;^^. 









NEW YORK: 
D. APPLETON AND COMPANY, 

549 AND 551 BROADWAY. 

1878. 






.J57 



COPYKIGHT BY 

JAMES JOHO]!mOT, 

1878. 



PEEFAOE 



ExPEEiENCE is beginning to show that teaching, like 
every other department of human thought and activity, 
must change with the changing conditions of society, 
or it will fall in the rear of civilization and become an 
obstacle to improvement. 

Teachers imbued with modern thought, in compar- 
ing the ideals which such thought suggests with the 
actual results of their efforts in the ordinary routine of 
instruction, have become dissatisfied; and intelligent 
outside observers have seen with great concern the con- 
tinual divergence of education from practical affairs. 

Efforts to remove these difficulties have usually been 
directed toward reforming the methods of presenting 
the ordinary topics, rather than toward a more radical 
change ; and hence there have grown up a great num- 
ber of empiric methods, which have found expression 
in manuals for teachers and in text-books. These have 
all contributed something to the solution of the prob- 
lem, and in the aggregate have been of great value to 
education, especially in the primary grades. 

But the remedies have proved inadequate, and the 



4 PREFACE. 

dissatisfaction remains, taking the form of a widespread 
feeling that, in some way, the schools are out of joint 
with the times, and that the instruction w^hich they 
afford is not the highest and best, either as a discipli- 
nary force, or as a preparation for the duties and occu- 
pations of life. This feeling gives rise to a demand 
that some means shall be devised by which education 
may profit by the results of modern science and phi- 
losophy, and once more take rank as a leading force in 
civilization. 

To meet this demand, the changes required are or- 
ganic and fundamental, and include the matter which 
shall be made the basis of instruction and the order of 
presenting the several subjects, as well as the methods 
to be pursued. 

In this volume, an endeavor has been made to exam- 
ine education from the standpoint of modem thought, 
and to contribute something to the solution of the prob- 
lems that are forcing themselves upon the attention of 
educators. To these ends, a concise statement of the 
well-settled principles of psychology has been made, 
and a connected view of the interdependence of the 
sciences given, to serve as a guide to methods of in- 
struction, and to determine the subject-matter best 
adapted to each stage of development. 

The systems of several of the great educational 
reformers have been analyzed, with a view to ascertain 



PREFACE. 



precisely what each has contributed to the science of 
teaching, and how far their ideas conform to psycho- 
logical laws ; and an endeavor has been made to com- 
bine the principles derived from both experience and 
philosophy into one coherent system. 

Several of the topics are examined from different 
points of view, involving a degree of repetition ; but in 
these cases the topics treated either relate to some er- 
roneous notions of education still practised and defend- 
ed, or the treatment is needed to fully illustrate the 
general topic under discussion. 

Fully aware of the difficulties of the work which 
he has undertaken, the author presents this volume to 
the public, in the hope that any shortcomings in the 
performance may be more than compensated by the 
thought which may be elicited in a renewed examina- 
tion and discussion of the subject. Seeking only what 
is true, he will be first to welcome criticism that shall 
point out errors of fact or of philosophy. 

Ithaca, N". Y., February 3, 1878. 



COl^TEIvrTS. 



CHAPTER I. PAGE 

General Objects of Education . . . . .11 

Knowlkdge AS Eelated to Sitccess: Conditions of Successful Teacliing. 
Definition of Education : System, Symmetry, Harmony — Objects of 
Education— The Means of Education— Divisions of the Subject. " Physi- 
cal Education : Physical Development Twofold— Means of Physical 
Development— Work and Exercise. Mental Education : The Process 
of Mental Education— Knowledge the Mind's Foodj-Discipline and 
Knowledge — Character and Knowledge— Necessary Knowledge- The 
Means Employed— Modes of Exercise— Practical Knowledge— Knowl- 
edge of Eights. Moral Education : Means of Moral Growth— Means 
of Moral Strength. Geneeal Summary : Scientific View— Effect of 
Broader Views. 

CHAPTER II. 
The Mental Powers . . . . . .25 

Importance of Mental Science to Teachers : A Common Defect of 
Teachers — Scope of the Discussion. How Knowledge is Obtained : 
Ideas of Pressure— Ideas in Eegard to the Surface of Objects — Ideas in 
Eegard to Flavor— Ideas in Eegard to Odor— Ideas in Eegard to Sound 
— Ideas in Eegard to Light and Color— The Senses to be Cultivated — 
Sensation — Attention — Treatment of Attention — Perception — Nature of 
Percepts — Treatment of Perception. How Knowledge is Eetatned : 
Arbitrary Memory— Suggestive Memory — Associated Memory— Like- 
nesses — Cnhkenesses — Dependence — Abuse of Memory — The Eight 
Use of Memory — Perception and Memory — Eecollection. How 
Knowledge is Used : Imagination— The Depreciation of this Faculty 
— A Highly Practical Faculty— Dependence of Imagination — Treatment 
of Imagination — Eeasou — Judgment. Mixed Mental Processes: 
Comparison — Conception. Order in Msntal Development : Princi- 
ples Confirmed by Observation— Age an Important Consideration. 
Expression as Eelated to Mental Development : Position Hlus- 
trated — The Twofold Office of Language— Importance of Cultivating 
Language. ~^ 

CHAPTER HI. 
Objective Course of Instruction . . . . .51 

General View of Present Practices : Wrong Practices — Examples — 
Eote-Learning — Nervous Action — Semi-Eeflex Action — Studies too 
Difficult— Faults of Omission. Eace and Individual Growth : His- 
torical Examples. Objective or Inductive Method : Perception — 
Comparison— Grouping — Objective Classification— Generalization — Law, 
Principle, Definition — Examples — Benefits of the Objective Method — 
Spirit of Modern Science. 

CHAPTER IV. 
Subjective Course of Instruction . . . . .67 

The Subjective Method : Definition— Examples— Divisions of a Subject- 
Imperfect Divisions— Subjective Classification— Illustrations— Opposing 



8 CONTENTS 

PAGE 

Theories — Scientific Yiew — Definition of Divisions — Subdivisions. 
Chaeacteristics of the Stjbjeotive Cotjesb : Relations to Develop- 
ment — Relations to Knowledge — Place in the Educational Course— Mis- 
use of the Subjective Method. The Objective and Subjective Ootjkses 
Combined : The Two Courses as Related to Discovery and Application 
— The Two Courses as Related to the Teacher's Work— Errors of Re- 
versing the Two Courses. Coeollakies : Sources of Primary Ideas — 
Training the Senses — Securing Attention — Cultivating Perception — 
Exercises in Memory — Advanced Instruction — Ideas and Words — The 
Steps of Instruction— Exercise— Completed Processes. 

CHAPTER V. 
Object-Teaching . . . . . . .S3 

General View of the Subject : False Philosophy— Introduction of Ob- 
ject-Lessons— Practical Mistakes— Reaction against Object-Teaching— 
Real Nature of Object-Lessons. Value of Object-Lessons : Qualities 
of Objects— The Physical Sciences—" How not to do it "—Ideal Objects 
—Order in Thinking— The Ideal and the Real— Interest in Study— Veri- 
fication of a Law. Summary : Cautions to be Observed— Limits of Ob- 
ject-Teaching—Additional Caution— Conclusion. 

CHAPTER YI. 

Relative Yalue of the Different Branches of Instruction . 95 

The End of Education : Practical Questions— Responsibility for Change- 
Conditions of Change. Real and Apparent Knowledge: Relations 
of Language — Relations of Mathematics — Direct and Incidental Acquire- 
ment — Kinds of Knowledge Required — Branches of Real Knowledge. 
The Branches as Related to Development : Natural Science as Pro- 
moting Development — The Disciphne of Memory— The Humanities as 
Promoting Development — Discipline of the Reflective Faculties — Gener- 
al Effect of Real Knowledge— The Discipline of Conduct. The Branches 
AS Related to Uses: Uses of Natural Science— Natural Science and 
Industry — Ubiquity of the Elements of Natural Science — Uses of the 
Humanities— Conditions of their Successful Use. Special Studies ; 
Importance of History — Chronology — Philology — ArchjEology— What is 
Gained. Foreign Languages : Elementary Study— Foreign Literatui'e 
— Comparative Philology. The Ancient Languages : Advantages 
Claimed — Difficulties Encountered — Mental Discipline — Schiller's Opin- 
ion. Summary ln Regard to Language. General Summary. 

CHAPTER YII. 
Pestalozzi ........ 116 

Schools of the Olden Time : Effect of Printing upon Education— Teach- 
ers Employed — Value of Learning to Road— Ideal Schools. Pestaloz- 
zi's Career : Philanthropic Views— The Ideal Reduced to Practice — 
Experiments at Neuhof— Condition of the Country— School at Stanz — 
Condition of the School— Things and Representatives— Intellectual Suc- 
cess—Moral Success— School at Burgdorf— School at Yverdon. Pesta- 
Lozzi's Principles : Order in Mental Growth— Home Education— The 
Influence of Mothers— Mistakes in Application— Education of Mothers — 
Study of Children— Training Imbeciles— Basis of Experience— Object- 
Teaching— Practical Objections— Conduct and Character— Growth ot 
the System. 

CHAPTER YIII. 

Eroebel and the Kindergarten . . . . . .130 

Fruit op Pestalozzi's Principles : Education through Work— Agricultu- 
ral Schools— Limitations of these Schools. J he Work of Froebel: 
Philanthropic Motives— Development of the Kindergarten— Obscurity 



CONTENTS. 9 

PAGE 

of Expression. Kindeegaeten Principles : Inherited Powers and 
Tendencies— Education should Commence Early— Education Based on 
Self-Activity— Spontaneous Activity, or Play— ISchool Exercises should 
give Pleasure— Physical and Mental Activity combmed— Harmonious 
Development of the Powers— The Schools demanded by these Princi- 
ples. Peactical Kindeegaeten Woek: The Kind of Play— The 
Method of Play— Original Work— Singing— Playing in the Dirt— The 
Law of Order— Study of the System. The Kindeegaeten at St 
Louis : Necessity of Study and Experiment— Scope of Education- 
Scope of the Kindergarten— Dehcate Adjustments— Philosophy Involved 
—Questions to be Settled. 

CHAPTER IX. 
Agassiz : AND Science in its Relations to Teaching . . 146 

The Scope and End of Science : Philosophy and UtiUty— Prof. TyndalPs 
Opinion— Another View— Prof. Huxley's Opinion— Antagonisms Har- 
monized—Incentive to Investigation. Methods of Science : Scientific 
Method in Teaching— Defects in Teaching which Science Eemedies— 
Waking up Mind— Growth of the Scientific Principle. Agassiz's 
WoEK : Early Life— Love of Nature— Vacation Studies— Study of the 
Glaciers-Spirit of his Work— The Old Methods Distrusted-Eeforma- 
tion Begun— The School at Penikese— A New Era— Unfinished Plans 
bUMMAEY OF Agassiz's Pkinciples : Training the Observin'' Powers— 
Importance of Hand- Work— Science the Basis of Education— Knowl- 
edge Necessary for Discipline— Authority in Science and Education- 
Thoroughness In Work and Study - Scientific Object-Lessons— Corrobo- 
rative Views— Uses of Hypotheses— Value of Hypotheses— Hypoth- 
eses m Education. -^ ^ 

CHAPTER X. 
Systems of Education Compared . . . , .168 

Int^ditctoet. Memoeizing : Chinese Schools— The Monkish Svstem— 
English Schools- Grounds of Defense- Securing Attention— training- 
the MCTnory— Judgment of Study-Cultivation of Language— Future 
ir^^" rf^^w'^^^J. <>^,-^«OKS : Ideas of what Constitutes an Educated 
^"i"™ "'o/ship of Books— Evils resulting from the Abuse of Books 
—The Place of Text-Books-The Necessity of Text-Books-The Proper 
Use of Text-Books -Increased Demand for Text-Books. The Study 
^JrJu°'^*ll" Cultivation of Perception-Basis of Experience— Materials 
of Thought. Experiment and Work : Technical Schools— Superiority 
of Educated Workmen- Work in the Kindergarten -The Next Step 
Demanded— Hand and Brain Culture. General Summary. 

CHAPTER XI. 

Physical Culture . . . . ^ 23^. 

Inteoductoey_: Opposing Theories— Factors of Physical Culture-Scone 
of Instruction— Preparation on the Part of Teachers. Food • Kinds of 
Food-Limitations— Quality of Food-Quantity of Food-Varietv of 
Food-Cautaon to be Observed -Time for Taking Food- Manner of 
1 aking Food— Miscellaneous Suggestions— Use of Drinks— Pernicious 
Drmks— Tobacco-Habits of the Teacher. Waemth : Clothing-Mate- 
nals for Clothmg— Eelations of Clothing to Food— Changes of Tem- 
perature—Sanitary Suggestions— Houses— Necessary Considerations. 
Light : Direction of Light— Defective Sight. Aie and Ventilation • 
Sources of Impure Air— Conditions to be Observed -Distribution of 
Heat-Egress of Air- Ventilating Arrangement-Method of Operation 
—Practical Suggestions. Direct Musculae Teaining : Calisthenics— 
^mds ot Exercise— Calisthenic Apparatus— Time given to Exercise- 
Caution to be Observed. Best : Eest of Change— Eest of Attention— - 
Complete Eest— Daily Best or Sleep— Amount of Sleep— Best from 



10 CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER XII. PAGE 

^Esthetic Culture , . . . . . .216 

Nature of Esthetics : Standard of Beauty — Euskin's Yiews — Experience 
Theory— Training in Art. Foem : Analysis of Form— Geometric Di- 
visions — Forms Used in Art — Nature the Basis of Art. Pkoportion : 
Proportion in Architecture— Element of Safety— General Ideas of Pro- 
portions — Ideas of Proportion Applied, Unity : Example in Nature — 
Unity in Art— Disregard of Unity -Aggregation not Unity. Symme- 
try : Symmetry in Nature — Symmetry in Art. Harmony : Harmony 
in Stjie — Harmony in Nature — Harmony in Art — Want of Harmony. 
Variety : Variety in Nature— Variety in Art — Monotony in Cities — 
Contrasted Examples. Color : Standard of Beauty in Color— Comple- 
mentary Colors — Variety in Color — Attention to Color. Sound : Origin 
of Musical Perception — Esthetic and Moral Value of Music — Tones in 
Speech— Unpleasant Tones. General Summary. -^Esthetic Teach- 
ing : The School-room — School Surroundings — Dress — Habits and Man- 
ners. Drawing : Muscular Drill — Cultivating Observation— Perspec- 
tive and Shading— Use of Color— Industrial Art— Art Proper— National 
Art. 

CHAPTER XIII. 

Moral Culture ....... 251 

Moral Aims : Neglect of Moral Instruction— Seasons for the Neglect. 
What is Morality? Basis of Morals. Extent of Needs— Equality of 
Needs — Basis of Eights— Basis of Duty — Negative and Positive Duties 
— Standard of Moral Duty — Concrete Examples — Factors of Morality — 
Individual Morality. Moral Instruction in School : Force of Ex- 
ample — Manners — Example of 111 Manners — Limit of Eesponsibility — 
Moral Sensibility— Incidental Moral Lessons— Negative Eesults- Labor 
and Service — Caution — Eecognition of Well-doing. School Govern- 
ment : Obstructive Considerations — Changes Desirable— Eestraint — 
Indirect Moral Influences— Dangers of Neglect. Direct Moral 
Teaching : Precept and Practice — Use of Common Incidents— Use of 
Literature— Abuse of Literature- Use of History— Defects in Historic 
Study — Moral Science. Social Eelations : The Family — General So- 
ciety — Civil Government — Practical Morality — Applications in Schools — 
Eesults of Moral Training. 

CHAPTER XIV. 

General Course of Study . . . . . .284 

Preliminary : Principles taken as a Basis. General Arrangement : 
The Natural Sciences — Course in Science — Philosophy or the Humani- 
ties—Course in Philosophy — Language — Course in Language— Mathe- 
matics — Course in Mathematics — JEsthetics— Course in Esthetics. 
Primary Department : General Description — j^irst Grade— Second 
Grade— Third Grade. Intermediate Department : General Descrip- 
tion—Fourth Grade— Fifth Grade— Sixth Grade. Senior Depart- 
ment : General Description — Seventh Grade — Eighth Grade— Ninth 
Grade. Academic Department: General Desci-iptioa- Tenth Grade 
—Eleventh Grade- Twelfth Grade. 

CHAPTER XV. 
Country Schools and their Organization . . . . 3*71 

Comparative Standing : Advantages — Defects — Imperfect Grading — 
Boards of Control — School-houses — Apparatus and Books — Short 
Terms — Change of Teachers. Qualification of Teachers : Scientific 
Knowledge — General Culture — The Mental Powers — Professional 
Knowledge — Self- Improvement. Details of Work : The Alphabet— 
Eeading — Spelling — Object-Lessons— Eural Affairs. Special Course 
of Study, 



PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE 



OF 



TEACHING. 



CHAPTER I. 

GENERAL OBJECTS OF EDUCATION. 

Knowledge as Related to Success. — " The secret 
of thrift," says the late Charles Kingsley, "is knowl- 
edge. The more you know, the more yon can save 
yourself and that which belongs to you, and can do 
more work with less effort. A knowledge of the laws 
of commercial credit, we all know, saves capital, ena- 
bling a less capital to do the work of a greater. Knowl- 
edge of the electric telegraph saves time ; knowledge of 
writing saves human speech and locomotion ; knowledge 
of domestic economy saves income ; knowledge of sani- 
tary laws saves health and life ; knowledge of the laws 
of the intellect saves wear and tear of brain ; and knowl- 
edge of the laws of the spirit — what does it not save ? " 
The application of these remarks may be very broad, 
reaching almost every department of human life ; but 
to no single pursuit are they more forcibly adapted than 
to the profession and work of the teacher. 



12 TRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 

Conditions of Successful Teaching. — Before a 
teacher can set about his professional work intelligently 
and with assurance of success, he must not only under- 
stand its technical details, but he should also have a 
broad and comprehensive knowledge of the general ob- 
jects of education, and of the means by which these 
objects are to be accomplished. 

To many, the word education has no definite mean- 
ing ; and to others it is made to embrace only acquaint- 
ance with certain stereotyped branches commonly taught 
in our schools. The true teacher must, in the outset, 
get a clear idea of the meaning of -his work. He must 
also possess such a knowledge of its nature and princi- 
ples as will effectually save him from the control of a 
low and contracted view of his vocation ; and from the 
partial or complete failure to which such a view must 
inevitably lead. 

Definition of Education. — The term education is 
derived immediately from the Latin word educare {to 
hring up, or to instruct), from the root educere {to lead 
forth, or to draw out). This literal rendering but im- 
perfectly represents the meaning that now attaches to 
the word. It not only means to draw out, but it in- 
cludes the appliances and agencies necessary for the 
development of a human being. 

The mind, instead of being a repository of powers 
which only need to be drawn out, is more like a plant 
which grows from a seed to its full stature. The im- 
portance of this distinction can scarcely be overrated. 
The way in which the growth of a plant results from 
bringing the germ of the seed into contact with the 
appropriate substance in which it is planted, is illustra- 



GENERAL OBJECTS OF EDUCATION. j3 

tive of the j)rocess by wliicli the inherent powers of the 
mind are brought into contact with material outside of 
the mind— thus producing growth : but growth, as we 
shall see, under the laws and limitations of the mental 
organism itseK. 

System, Symmetry, Harmony. — T\\h illustration 
may be still further appKed. The growth of a plant 
proceeds systematically, symmetrically, and harmoni- 
ously. Stem, bud, leaf, flower, and fruit, come precise- 
ly in the succession necessary to accomplish the highest 
object of the plant. Supplied with appropriate food 
and culture, the progress of the plant will be distin- 
guished by symmetry and harmony in the development 
of its different organs. An excessive forcing of stem or 
leaf will unavoidably result in a limitation of flower and 
fruit. These organs, therefore, develop in due propor- 
tion, and without interference with each other, and, as a 
natural consequence, avoid loss or waste of force. The 
proper development of the mental power or faculties 
must follow a similar law or method. 

Olject of Education. — The object of education, 
then, is to promote the normal growth of a human being, 
developing all his powers systematically and symmetri- 
cally, so as to give the greatest possible capability in 
thought and action. These powers must be trained to 
act harmoniously, so that there need be no waste of 
effort in any direction. 

The Means of Education are such agencies as will 
promote the objects set forth. These means are proper 
where they contribute to the desired result ; they are 
adequate when they accomplish the result. 

All educational means should be measured by this 



14 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 

standard of excellence, and they sliould be adopted or 
rejected accordingly as they bear this test. 

Dimsion of the Subject. — Education, in the broad 
sense, naturally divides itseK into physical, intellectual, 
and moral. The first relates to the development of the 
body ; the second, to the development of the intellectual 
faculties ; and the third, to the regulation of conduct. 

Physical Edtjcation has for its objects the growth 
and nurture of the body, and the attainment of bodily 
strength. Upon the accomplishment of these objects 
the entire welfare of the human being depends. With- 
out proper bodily growth and nurture, it is impossible 
to achieve either mental or moral excellence. 

Physical Dei^elojpment Twofold. — Bodily develop- 
ment is twofold, consisting of physical growth and phys- 
ical strength. In thought these two can be separated, 
but in practice they are always associated. While 
growth and strength go on together, each increment 
or step of growth must precede an increment or step 
of strength. 

Means of Physical Pevelojpment. — The means for 
the promotion of physical growth are principally the 
articles used for food, and subordinately those other 
material agencies necessary to the preservation of hu- 
man life. The food consumed, to produce the result, 
must be of a proper kind, and must be taken in proper 
quantities and at the proper times. Besides these ex- 
ternal conditions, internally food must be properly di- 
gested and assimilated, or converted into bodily tissue. 
These conditions fulfilled, the body grows, and is nur- 
tured after growth is attained — food being an indispen- 



GENERAL OBJECTS OF EDUCATION. 15 

sable agent, and the principal one in promoting the 
growth. 

Work and Exercise. — The means used to promote 
bodily strength — the second object of physical educa- 
tion — are work and exercise. While food in some meas- 
ure produces strength, its chief object is to promote 
growth. And while exercise in some degree produces 
growth, its chief object is to promote strength. Both 
food and exercise are indispensable to physical develop- 
ment and physical well-being. 

Importance of the Suhject. — This matter of physical 
education is one that should secure careful consideration 
from every teacher. Upon it depends not only physical 
well-being, but from its consideration are derived gen- 
eral principles of great value when applied to intel- 
lectual and moral education. 

Mental Education. — In intellectual as in physical 
education, the two objects to be attained are intellectual 
growth and intellectual strength : the growth of all the 
faculties of the mind to their full maturity, and the pos- 
session of all the strength possible in each individual. 

The Process of Mental Education. — Though the 
nature of the mind's action is peculiar, the process of 
its development is analogous to the process of physical 
development. Food properly appropriated is the means 
by which the growth of the body is secured. In like 
manner the mind grows by what it feeds upon, and the 
natural aliment that produces mental growth is knowl- 
edge. 

Knowledge the Mind's Food. — The term knowledge 
is here used in its comprehensive sense, as embracing not 



16 PKINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 

only tlie subjective cognition, or act of knowing, bnt the 
things, facts, truths, or material about which this act is 
employed in bringing the individual into the practical 
relations of life. As food is indispensable to physical 
growth, so without knowledge the mind cannot grow. 
While the mind, from the first, possesses all the germs 
of mental power, it is the appropriation of knowledge 
alone that converts its latent and apparently passive 
capacities into active capabilities. 

Discifline and Knowledge, — In accordance with a 
theory of education now passing into disuse, it has been 
customary to require the mind to pass through an ex- 
perience intended simply to furnish discipline, by con- 
fining the pupil to certain branches, the substance of 
which rarely, if ever, enters into practical use. It has 
been contended that a pure discipline of the faculties 
should be secured by this process before the acquisition 
of knowledge is permitted. The teacher will observe 
that this theory, and the practice based upon it, are 
almost wholly discarded in the present work. It is here 
held that the theory of " discipline before knowledge " 
involves not only a wrong principle, but, in practice, leads 
to a great waste of the mental force and time of the 
pupil. 

The Characier of Knowledge Important. — To pro- 
duce the jDroper result, knowledge, like food, must be 
of the proper character, and must be appropriated in 
proper quantities and at suitable times. This knowledge 
or mental food must be digested by the mental organ- 
ism, and assimilated or converted into mental tissue. 
The great problems of education have been, to select 
the knowledge best adapted to nurture the mind at its 



GENERAL OBJECTS OF EDUCATION. 17 

various stages of growth, and so to prepare tliis nutri- 
ment tliat the mental organism can assimilate it with 
the least waste of power. 

This View Confi^rmed. — In his w^ork on moral science, 
President Hopkins, of Williams, says : " Knowledge is 
the food of the mind. And as food may overload and 
enfeeble the body, and is to be received only as there is 
a capacity of digestion and assimilation, and ultimate 
reference to action, so knowledge may overload and en- 
feeble the mind, and should be received only as it can 
be reflected on and arranged, and so incorporated into 
our mental being as to give us power for action." 

Necessary Knowledge. — ^While knowledge in gen- 
eral contributes to mental growth, and while there may 
be room for choice in regard to the kind of knowledge 
best adapted to individual development, one specific 
kind is indispensable, and that is, a knowledge of the 
conditions of physical well-being. Obedience to physi- 
cal laws is also a necessity to mental and moral well- 
being. This knowledge, so momentous to life and every- 
thing which makes life worth preserving, includes the 
careful and systematic observation of all the facts bear- 
ing upon the subject ; the inferences and laws to be de- 
rived from these facts ; and the application of laws, 
through wisely-directed means, to the maintenance of 
health. 

The Means Employed. — Intellectual strength or pow- 
er — the second object of intellectual education — is best 
promoted by exercise. "While knowledge in some meas- 
ure produces strength, its chief object is to promote the 
growth and nurture of the mind; and while exercise 
to some extent produces growth, its chief object is to 



18 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 

give intellectual strength. The two — ^knowledge and 
exercise — are both indispensable to mental development 
and well-being. 

Caution. — It should not for a moment be supposed 
that any scheme for the promotion of a true education 
can be devised that does not involve intellectual work. 
The improvement of methods of instruction, the per- 
fecting of illustrative apparatus, and all the valuable 
helps of the best schools, conspire only to avoid mis- 
direction and waste, and to increase intellectual effort ; 
but nothing can supersede the necessity of work as the 
source of strength. 

The Modes of Exercise, conducive to strength and 
best adapted to school-work, are the arrangement of 
knowledge in logical order, so as to lead to the percep- 
tion of laws and principles; the expression of knowl- 
edge, both in speaking and writing, in the form of well- 
considered discourse ; and the use of knowledge in di- 
rectly serving the great purposes of life. 

These modes of exercise take their practical form in 
the arrangement of all the facts gained from the study 
of each branch of instruction in some kind of definite 
order. The incidents of a journey are arranged in the 
order of sequence ; the events of history in the order 
of time; and the facts of physical phenomena in the 
order of causation. The successive topics treated in 
arithmetic, geography, and the like, are arranged in ac- 
cordance with relations peculiar to each branch respec- 
tively — the arrangement resulting in classification. The 
knowledge so arranged then finds expression in such 
language as can be best understood. 

The effort of the mind to arrange knowledge, and 



GENERAL OBJECTS OF EDUCATION. I9 

the subsequent effort to express it clearly, are among 
the best possible school-exercises for the promotion of 
intellectual strength. The result of these efforts, when 
rightly directed, is to put knowledge in the best form 
for that practical use which still further increases the 
intellectual life. 

Practical Knowledge taltes Precedence. — It will be 
shown hereafter that the knowledge which is of most 
importance in serving our daily needs is that best adapt- 
ed to secure intellectual growth ; and that the arrange- 
ment, expression, and use of this knowledge, in the 
manner in which it must be employed in the industries 
and professions to which men devote themselves, is the 
most direct and efficacious way of securing intellectual 
strength. 

Knowledge and Practice of Rights. — One other spe- 
cific kind of knowledge seems to be indispensable to 
full intellectual development. In consequence of our 
needs, we have certain rights which are inherent and 
inalienable. Every human being, before he can arrive 
at a full mental stature, must not only have a knowl- 
edge of these rights, but he must be placed in full pos- 
session of them. If his rights are surrendered on the 
one hand, or infringed on the other, his capabilities 
are lessened, and he is intellectually both smaller and 
weaker than he otherwise would have been. This con- 
sideration shows the connection between intellectual 
and moral education. 

MoEAL Education considers the relations which ex- 
ist between the individual and other human beings, and 
the conduct proper to observe in consequence of those 



20 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OP TEACHING. 

relations. Analogous to the divisions of physical and 
mental education, moral education consists first of moral 
growth, and secondly of moral strength. As moral ac- 
tion is complex, and intimately associated with the three- 
fold manifestation of mental action — the intellect, the 
feelings, and the will — the agencies that promote moral 
growth and strength are more complex than those neces- 
sary to physical or mental growth. 

Means of Moral Growth. — These are, first, the un- 
conscious affection which reciprocates the love of par- 
ents ; secondly, the sympathy which, either directly or 
indirectly, springs from personal experience ; thirdly, 
the example and precepts of parents and instructors ; 
^xA, fourthly , the investigation of human relations, and 
the development of the laws which govern such rela- 
tions. 

The Means of Moral Strength consist mainly in the 
application of the moral laws which have been devel- 
oped to all cases of conduct where others are concerned. 
The power of self-control, of subordinating selfish pro- 
pensities, and of the systematic performance of duty, 
come from practice alone ; and this power needs to re- 
ceive distinct encouragement through the whole period 
of school-life, so that, finally, moral strength may be 
gained. 

The principles of moral development, and the gen- 
eral plan for the introduction of moral exercises into 
our schools, are given in the chapter on " Moral Educa- 
tion." 

Geneeal Su:mmary. — This general survey of the 
educational field gives us an enlarged view of the na- 



GENERAL OBJECTS OF EDUCATION. 21 

ture and scope of education, and it enables us to express 
these enlarged ideas in the form of a definition. Edu- 
cation has for its objects the development and training 
of all the powers and faculties of a hmnan being com- 
pletely and harmoniously ; the furnishing of the mind 
with knowledge of the most worth in the performance 
of duties ; the subjection of all the powers to the con- 
trol of intelligent and beneficent motive ; and the forma- 
tion of the habit of yielding instant obedience to physi- 
cal and spiritual laws. 

Scientifio View. — In a paper upon " A Liberal Edu- 
cation," Prof. Huxley summarizes his ideas of the char- 
acter of an education which is demanded by the science 
and culture of the times. He says : " The question of 
compulsory education is settled so far as Nature is con- 
cerned. Her bill on that question was framed and 
passed long ago. Eut like all compulsory legislation, 
that of l^ature is harsh and wasteful in its operation. 
Ignorance is visited as sharply as willful disobedience ; 
incapacity meets the same punishment as crime. 'Nsl- 
ture's discipline is not even a word and a blow, and the 
blow first ; but the blow without the word. It is left to 
you to find out why your ears are boxed. 

" The object of what we commonly call education 
— that education in which man intervenes, and which I 
shall distinguish as artificial education — is to make good 
these defects in ]^ature's methods ; to prepare the child 
to receive jN'ature's education neither incapably, nor 
ignorantly, nor with willful disobedience ; and to under- 
stand the preliminary symptoms of her displeasure with- 
out waiting for the box on the ear. In short, all artifi- 
cial education ought to be an anticipation of natural 



22 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 

education. And a liberal education is an artificial edu- 
cation, wliich has not only prepared a man to escape tlie 
great evils of disobedience to natural laws, but has 
trained him to appreciate and to seize upon the rewards, 
which E'ature scatters with as free a hand as her penalties. 

"That man, I think, has had a liberal education 
who has been so trained in youth that his body is the 
ready servant of his will, and does with ease and pleas- 
ure all the work that, as a mechanism, it is capable of ; 
whose intellect is a clear, cold logic-engine, with all its 
parts of equal strength, and in smooth working order ; 
ready, like a steam-engine, to be turned to any kind of 
work, and spin the gossamers as well as forge the an- 
chors of the mind ; whose mind is stored with a knowl- 
edge of the great and fundamental truths of Nature, 
and of the laws of her operations ; one who, no stunted 
ascetic, is full of life and fire, but whose passions are 
trained to come to heel by a vigorous will, the servant 
of a tender conscience ; who has learned to love all 
beauty, whether of E"ature or art, to hate all vileness, 
and to respect others as himself. 

" Such an one and no other, I conceive, has had a lib- 
eral education ; for he is, as completely as a man can 
be, in harmony with ISTature. He will make the best 
of her, and she of him. They will get on together 
rarely, she as his ever-beneficent mother, he as her mouth- 
piece, her conscious self, her minister and interpreter." 

This view of education shows that the instruction 
prevalent in our schools usually falls far below educa- 
tional demands. It shows also that teachers frequently 
take narrow and limited views of their work, and so 
fail in accomplishing the highest attainable good. 



GENERAL OBJECTS OF EDUCATION". 23 

Effects of Broader Views. — ^With these enlarged 
views in regard to the nature of their work, teachers 
will pay particular attention to everything that pertains 
to the physical comfort of their pupils ; and they will 
carefully investigate the laws of physical existence for 
guidance in the proper care and training of the body. 
They will make their pupils intelligent in regard to the 
food they eat, the dress they wear, and every condition 
which affects their physical welfare. 

In mental work they will arrange a course of study 
in exact accordance with the needs of each stage of 
mental development ; and they will present the knowl- 
edge embraced in such a course in the way which sci- 
ence points out. They will not be contented with em- 
piric processes and meagre results. They will be guided 
by rational and intelligent principles rather than by 
mere precedent or authority, and in all their work they 
will conform to the laws of mental development, ob- 
tained from a study of mind itseK. They will aim to 
give their pupils greater power to do work in every 
vocation to which they may afterward be called. 

In morals, teachers will aim to have their pupils 
measure and regulate their own conduct toward others 
by the standard of human welfare so clearly expressed 
in the golden rule, and to make them intelligent in 
regard to all human relations. They will so order their 
work and their own conduct as to stimulate the pupil to 
devote his life to beneficent use, and to the attainment 
of that crowning excellence of all education — nobiHty 
of character. 

The following chapters of this work are devoted to 
a development of the principles which underKe this 



24: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 

broad education, and to a consideration of the means by 
wliich it may be attained. 

As tbe work of education has mainly to do with the 
mind, we first give a brief resume of the principles of 
mental philosophy which pertain to this subject, avoid- 
ing metaphysical discussions on the one hand, and an 
obscure technical phraseology on the other. These prin- 
ciples furnish a key both to the means to be used in 
educational work, and the methods to be followed in 
the use of the means. In the subsequent chapters, the 
principles developed receive additional illustration, and 
are applied to the details of teaching. The systems of 
several of the great educational reformers are also care- 
fully examined, and their principles are compared with 
those derived from the study of mind, as the basis of 
an intelligent appreciation of their merits and criticisms 
of their faults. 



CHAPTER 11. 

THE MENTAL POWERS. 

Importance of Mental Science to Teaching. — All 
intelligent teaching must be based upon principles de- 
rived from a consideration of the powers or faculties of 
the mind ; their modes of action ; the order of their 
development ; and the means by which their activity is 
awakened. Moral, and even physical education, de- 
pends largely upon laws which can be known only 
through an acquaintance with the operations of the 
mind. Indeed, so completely does this science constitute 
the ultimate basis upon which all trustworthy investiga- 
tion where human action is concerned must rest, that it 
has been called the " Queen of the Sciences." 

A Common Defect of Teachers. — ^Notwithstanding 
the fact that the philosophy of the mind is the basis of 
all other sciences which involve human action, the com- 
mon fault of teachers is an almost entire ignorance of 
the application of mental facts to the work of teaching. 
In the class-room and in the institute, the constant effort 
is to ascertain what specific and mechanical methods 
have proved successful by experiment, rather than to 
settle by fixed laws what methods must be successful. 

The real object of instruction is too often lost sight 
2 ' • - 



26 PRINCIPLES AND PKACTICE OF TEACHING. 

of. The question of primary interest seems to be " How 
to teach the different branches," instead of "How to 
develop and train the faculties of the child by the use 
of these branches." The natural consequence of this 
superficial view is, that teaching is too often a mere imi- 
tative art, of doubtful and varying success. Without a 
careful and reflective acquaintance with the constitution 
of the child's mind, the work of the teacher, with his 
geographies, arithmetics, and grammars, is scarcely less 
absurd than the performance of a difficult operation in 
surgery by one who knows all about ligatures, knives, 
and saws, but understands nothing of human anatomy. 

Bcojpe of the Present Discussion. — It is not proposed 
here to give a treatise upon intellectual philosophy, but 
only such a consideration of mental phenomena as is 
indispensable to an intelligent understanding of the 
teacher's work. It has already been shown that knowl- 
edge in some form is the element upon which the mind 
feeds, and is necessary in all of the processes of educa- 
tion. "We now propose to show the specific relations of 
knowledge to mind, and the manner in which the dif- 
ferent intellectual powers are aroused into activity. In 
the treatment of this subject the language of appearance 
or of ordinary life will be employed, instead of the strict 
phraseology of the sciences. 

How Knowledge is Obtained. — The mind in some 
way becomes possessed of knowledge from the outward 
world, or from objects. To arrive at the possession of 
this knowledge, three conditions are necessary : The ob- 
ject respecting which the knowledge is gained; the 
mind to receive this knowledge ; and some organism to 



THE MENTAL POWERS. 27 

serve as a means of communication between the mind 
and the object. In point of fact, we find that the dif- 
ferent ideas derived from objects come through different 
organs specially adapted to their respective purposes. 

Ideas of Pressure^ and of the weight of objects, are 
conveyed to the mind by the nerves distributed through 
the muscles. "While nearly all of the muscles of the 
body are more or less sensitive to pressure, ideas of com- 
parative weight are obtained mainly through the mus- 
cles of the arm. The ability of the mind to receive the 
ideas of pressure and weight is called the musGidar 
sense / and the nerves and muscles through which these 
impressions are made are the organs of the muscular 
sense. 

Ideas in Regard to the Surface of Objects^ such as 
rough and smooth, hard and soft, are brought to the 
mind by the nerves distributed through the skin. These 
nerves are most sensitive in the ends of the fingers. 
The same nerves within narrow limits convey ideas of 
comparative temperature. Excessive heat and exces- 
sive cold will destroy the nerves so that the impressions 
made are nearly identical. With the hand in motion, 
these nerves give rise to ideas of extension and change 
of direction, from which are derived ideas of size and 
form. The capability of the mind to receive these im- 
pressions of surface is called touch — the fingers being 
the principal organs of touch. 

Ideas in Regard to the Flavor of Objects^ such as 
sweet, salt, and bitter, are awakened in the mind by the 
nerves distributed over the surface of the tongue, and 
the contiguous parts of the mouth. The surface of 
bodies only can occasion ideas of flavor, and this sur- 



28 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 

face, at tlie moment of imparting the impression to tlie 
nerves, mnst be dissolved, or in a liquid state. Tlie ca- 
pacity of the mind to receive ideas of flavor is called 
taste, and the tongue and palate are the organs of taste. 

Ideas in Regard to the Odor of Objects, such as 
musk, rose, or pink, are brought to the mind by the 
nerves distributed through the cavities of the nose. 
The impressions which give rise to these ideas of odor 
are made by an ethereal emanation from an object rather 
than by the object itself. The capacity of the mind to 
entertain ideas of odor is called smell, the nose being 
the organ of smell: 

Ideas in Regard to Bound, such as thunder, musical 
notes, and speech, are occasioned in the mind by the 
nerves that ramify through the organism of the internal 
ear. Sound is neither an object nor an emanation from 
an object, but is caused by a vibration of the air striking 
the tympanum of the ear, and this vibration is caused 
by the motion or vibration of an object. Differences 
in the rapidity of the vibrations give rise to differences 
in the pitch of sounds. The power of the mind to re- 
ceive ideas of sound is called hearing. The ear is the 
organ of hearing. 

Ideas in Regard to light and Color, such as red, 
yellow, and blue, are conveyed to the brain by the mech- 
anism of the eye, and by the nerves passing through 
the interior of the eye. Light is now generally consid- 
ered to be the vibrations of an exceedingly attenuated 
ether which fills the whole interstellar spaces, striking 
against the structure of the eye. 

These vibrations are, in turn, set in motion by the 
vibrations of a luminous object. The difference in the 



THE MENTAL POWERS. 29 

rapidity of these vibrations gives rise to the ideas of the 
different colors. By differences in intensity of liglit ; by 
the distribution of color ; by the impressions of exten- 
sion gained from touch, and by the experience gained 
from motion, we get corrected ideas of distance, size, and 
form. The capacity of the mind to receive ideas of 
light is called seeing^ or sight. The eye is the organ of 
sight. 

The Senses. — These six methods by which the mind 
gets possession of knowledge respecting the outward 
world a?e called the senses. It will be seen that each 
sense has its separa,te function, and that one sense cannot 
perform the office of another sense. 

It has been a question much discussed, whether the 
organs of one sense can be made to perform the func- 
tions of another. For example, can the blind be made 
to apprehend light and color? and can the deaf ever 
understand the nature of sound ? It is a well-known 
fact, that the touch of a blind man can be made so sen- 
sitive that he can readily distinguish the differences of 
color in different kinds of cloth. This sensitiveness, 
however, appears to enable him to distinguish differ- 
ences in the surface of the fabric ^vhich could not be 
detected by ordinary touch, while it does not convey to 
him any definite idea of color in the sense in which it 
is presented to the eye. So of sound. The deaf man 
may be sensitive to the vibrations of the air, but he can 
have no adequate idea of the nature of sound as it comes 
to the ear. 

By the loss of one sense the other senses become 
more acute, but probably the exact functions of one are 
never performed by another. 



30 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 

The Senses to he Cultivated. — As the senses are the 
only means by which primary knowledge of objects can 
be obtained, the well-being of every individual demands 
that the different organs of sense shonld be so cared for 
as to be in a healthy and sensitive condition ; and the 
senses themselves shonld be trained to do their work 
with precision and skill. 

For example : the notes in music, the modulations 
of the human voice in regard to pitch, quantity, and 
quality, the modifications of tone which constitute 
speech, and the peculiarities of speech which express 
the diJfferent emotions and passions, must all be ad- 
dressed to the ear ; and that these differences in sound 
may be fully understood, the ear must receive special 
training. It is impossible to present these ideas to the 
mind through the eye, or through any of the other or- 
gans of sense. 

Ideas in regard to color and form must be addressed 
to the eye. A verbal description of an object which 
has not been seen will give a very vague idea of the re- 
ality unless the eye has been trained to accurate obser- 
vation, and has seen something similar to the thing de- 
scribed. 

In the study of geography, a large proportion of the 
descriptive part is worse than useless from the neglect 
of the early training of the eye. The words of the de- 
scription, failing to take hold of the experience of the 
pupil, find no response in the understanding, and the 
exercise becomes one of words only. To train the eye 
to an appreciation of natural scenery, architecture, and 
the like, when accessible real objects are exhausted, 
recourse may be had to pictures which address them- 



THE MENTAL POWERS. 31 

selves to the eye, and by means of whicli knowledge 
may be indefinitely extended. 

Mistakes to le Avoided. — In school, the mistake is 
often made of endeavoring to convey to the mind ideas 
belonging to one sense through another. Ideas of form 
come through the sight and touch alone, and yet many 
times an effort is made to have pupils comprehend form 
by mere verbal description addressed to the ear. By 
an adult, with a well-trained mind, stocked with images 
derived from experience, such descriptions may be un- 
derstood, because he is able to translate the language of 
one sense into that of another ; but to a child, who has 
had little experience, the description becomes a mere 
verbal formula, conveying no idea except that of sound. 

Sensation. — The impression which an object makes 
upon the organ of sense is called sensation. In every 
sensation three things are necessary : an object, an or- 
gan of sense, and vitality or life. For example : in see- 
ing, there must be an object to form an image, an eye 
upon which the image may be formed, and life, so that 
the image may be transferred to the nervous centres and 
to the mind. 

The eye of an ox may be taken, and the posterior 
part of the sclerotic coat removed ; then, by placing it 
in an aperture in a darkened room, so that the light 
from outside will fall upon it as in life, the observer in 
the room can see upon the retina a picture of all the 
objects within the visual angle from the aperture where 
the eye is placed. This image is the mechanical part 
of sensation, and life only is needed to convert it into 
sensation proper. 

Attention. — When a sensation is carried by the 



/ 



32 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 

nerve to tlie brain, the mind may be so engaged in otlier 
matters as not to perceive it, and hence the sensation 
does not become a possession of the mind ; or it may 
be noticed while the mind is in a passive state, or par- 
tially engaged in other matters ; or it may be received 
while the mind is in a state of activity, and eagerly 
seeking it. The attitude of the mind toward sensations 
in receiving them is called attention, 

Nature of Attention. — Attention is thus seen to be 
of a twofold character, active and passive, or, as named 
by Sir William Hamilton, primary and secondary. 
Both of these degrees of attention may be exercised 
simultaneously. When specially and actively directed 
to sensations possessing the greatest interest, the atten- 
tion is primary ; while to the subordinate sensations re- 
ceived at the same time, the attention is secondary. 

Examples. — The mind may be so intent upon the ob- 
servation of an outward object, upon an occupation in 
which the hands are engaged, or upon a subject of re- 
flection, that the impressions which are not a part of 
the subject of contemplation are entirely unnoticed. 
Household objects, natural scenery, pictures, music, 
conversation, the roar of the waterfall, and the rush of 
the locomotive, all make their impression upon the 
nerves of sense, and these impressions are conveyed to 
the nervous centres ; but upon the absorbed and occu- 
pied mind they make no impression, and, as far as 
mental consciousness is concerned, they are simply non- 
existent. In this case the principal sensation receives 
the entire attention, and the subordinate sensations re- 
ceive none. 

Again, the mind may be engaged in examining the 



THE MENTAL POWERS. 33 

qualities of an object, in the ordinary vocations of the 
day, or in the examination of a principle in science or 
philosophy, and at the same time it may be conscious 
that the wind blows, the rain falls, the fire burns, and 
of many other things of like character. In this case the 
principal sensation becomes a possession of the mind 
through primary attention, and the subordinate sensa- 
tions through secondary attention. 

, The attitude of the mind in listening to conversation, 
to a speech, lecture, or sermon, affords another illustra- 
tion in point. The mind of the listener is intent upon 
the subject discussed ; but it often happens that, besides 
the thought, he is conscious of peculiarities of tone, de- 
fects in articulation, and inaccuracies in construction, 
on the part of the speaker, and of conversation carried 
on by members of the audience. Here the primary 
and secondary attention are both busy in receiving and 
recording impressions. 

In this matter a caution is to be observed on the 
part of both the speaker and the listener. "Where the 
peculiarities and inaccuracies of the speaker are of so 
pronounced a character as to compel the attention of 
the listener to them instead of to the thought, the effect 
of the speech is lost, and the time spent in its delivery 
is wasted. Hence the form and manner of the speech 
should receive equal care with that bestowed upon the 
thought. 

On the other hand, where the power of verbal criti- 
cism is developed in advance of the ability to receive 
and assimilate thought, the listener will occupy himself 
in the form and words of the address, while the thought 
passes unnoticed. The primary attention is fixed on 



34 PEINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 

language ; and this habit once formed, the mind busies 
itseK upon petty subjects and details, and becomes in- 
capable of receiving the thought which the language is 
designed to convey. 

Attention to he Trained. — As no sensation can be 
received by the mind without attention, it will be seen 
that habits of systematic attention are among the most 
fundamental needs of education. JS^ot only should these 
habits of attention be cultivated, but the mind should 
be trained to change passive into active attention at will. 

Treatment of Attention. — In class-recitation, the at- 
tention of the pupils must be secured, or the lesson is a 
failure. The first requisite in securing attention is to 
have every pupil assume a proper attitude : erect, easy, 
and with eyes fixed on the teacher. Everything that is 
within reach of the hand, and that is calculated to di- 
vert attention, should be put aside. Lounging, and a 
listless attitude and manner, should not be permitted. 

Should the members of the class generally be inter- 
ested in something foreign to the lesson, like a game in 
which they have been engaged, a story that has just 
been told, or an interesting piece of news, the teacher 
should seek to turn their thoughts in a new channel by 
some anecdote or pleasantry, which will gradually lead 
to the work on hand. 

To Keep the Attention, when once secured, the teacher 
must thoroughly understand the subject; must know 
how to adapt his instruction to the condition of the pu- 
pil ; and he must be able to present the subject in such 
an interesting manner, that the mind will be constantly 
stimulated to reach out for new ideas. The new ideas 
presented must be related to those which the pupil al- 



THE MENTAL POWERS. 35 

ready possesses, and not so far in advance but tliat these 

relations may be readily discovered. 

y Percejption. — The act of the mind in becoming fully 

(Conscious of a sensation after attention is secured is 

called perception, and the sensation itseK is called a 

percept. 

Nature of Percepts, — The percept may be single 
and unrelated, arousing no action in the mind beyond 
the mere sensation received, and, when used by the 
mind, reflected back as received ; or it may be complex 
and related, leading to comparisons and inferences, and 
becoming an element of intelligence. 

Examples. — One class of nursery rhymes consists 
merely of jingle without sense. When heard, they are 
received as unrelated percepts, and are given back in 
the same manner as received. "Intra mintra cutra 
corn " conveys no idea to the mind save that of sound. 
All formulas of words, the meaning of which is not 
understood, are of the same kind, and are received by 
the mind and reflected back, without arousing further 
mental action, or becoming elements of real intelli- 
gence. 

Observations of objects and of phenomena, and 
language that contains thought which is understood, are 
complex percepts, stimulating mental activity, and en- 
tering into mental processes. 

Reception of Knowledge. — The act of perception 
completes the process of obtaining ideas from the out- 
ward world, and transforms the qualities and relations 
of objects impressed upon the senses into intelligence, 
which contributes directly to mental growth. 

The group of activities necessary to the various 



36 PRINCIPLES AND PKACTICE OF TEACHING. 

stages of obtaining knowledge from objects, including 
sensation, attention, and perception, are called the jper- 
ceptive or receptive power of the mhid. 

Treatrwent of Perception. — As throngli perception 
alone does the mind receive impressions of the world 
outside of itself, and as the facts derived from percep- 
tion are the materials upon which the mind feeds, and 
by which the higher powers are brought into activity, 
the importance of perceptive training of the most thor- 
ough kind is at once manifest. The habitual neglect of 
this training in schools is one of the principal sources 
of their weakness, and is the point to which efforts at 
reform, at this time, should be principally directed. 
The details of perceptive processes, and the agencies to 
be used, are treated more fully in the chapter upon 
" Object-Teaching." 

How K]!^owLEDGE IS Eetained. — The mind has the 
power not only of obtaining knowledge, but of storing 
it for use by a ]3rocess which is known by the general 
name of memory.^ That memory may perform its func- 
tions without failure, it is necessary that an idea should 
be forcibly impressed upon the mind at once, or that it 
should be repeated a sufficient number of times to 
make a deep impression. 

Arbitrary Memory. — A single unrelated perception 
of ordinary force makes but a faint impression upon the 
mind, and one that is easily obliterated. Each of a 
series of unrelated perceptions makes its own impression 
w^ithout deepening that of another. The effort to retain 
such perceptions must be comj)lete in each instance^ 
success in one case affording no aid in another. The 



THE MENTAL POWERS. 37 

power of retaining single or unrelated perception is 
known as arhitrary 'tneinory. 

Suggestive Memory. — Two or more dissimilar per- 
ceptions may be made upon tlie mind, nearly or qnite 
simultaneously, connected by time, place, circumstance, 
or sequence. These connected perceptions make a 
stronger impression tban either would separately, and 
they are laid away together. The effort to retain the 
series is no greater than to retain a single one, and the 
connection is such that the one always suggests the 
other. This form or degree of retaining bears the name 
of suggestive memory or suggestion. 

Associative Memory. — The impression made by a 
single perception is deepened by another following in 
the same channel ; and when many perceptions are made 
to follow each other, the impression is deep and lasting. 
The relations which bind perceptions closely together 
are likenesses, unlikenesses, and dependence. . 

Likenesses. — Perceptions of the same kind appear 
to pass through the mind in the same channels, arousing 
the same kind of mental activity. In this manner ob- 
jects having the same qualities are connected in the 
mind. Honey and sugar are connected by the common 
quality of sweetness ; bleached cloth and snow by white- 
ness ; the roar of the cataract and thunder by loudness ; 
and anger and tempest by fierce commotion. "When the 
likeness of a new perception to an old one is clearly 
seen, the two are at once associated and are stored to- 
gether. The effort necessary to retain the new is di- 
minished as the likeness to the old is comprehended, and 
the two are made to pass through the same channel. 

Unlikenesses. — Perceptions of one kind arouse in the 



38 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 

mind ideas of an opposite character, and contrasted ideas 
become associated, deepening tlie impression of each. 
Ideas of sweet suggest ideas of sonr ; black, of white ; 
large, of small ; rough, of smooth ; high, of low ; rapid, of 
slow. These ideas of opposites are stored together, and 
the one suggests the other. "When the one is retained, 
the effort to retain the other is inconsiderable, and con- 
trast or unlikeness becomes an important element in de- 
veloping the retaining power. 

Dependence.— OxiQ idea is seen to depend upon 
another ; and by a recognition of this dependence, the 
ideas pass through the same channel, each deepening 
the impression of the other. Fire is seen to depend 
upon fuel ; the light of the day upon the sun ; breath- 
ing upon air ; the warmth of the body upon clothing ; 
harvest upon seed-time. Ideas linked by dependence 
are stored together in the mind, the one suggesting the 
other. When the relation of dependence is once seen, 
the effort necessary to retain is greatly diminished. 

This mode of retaining by relations, or this degree of 
the retaining power of the mind, is called associative 
memory or association. 

As the amount of knowledge retained by association 
increases, the effort necessary to retain new ideas of the 
same character decreases, and the mind is relieved of the 
special effort necessary to every act of arbitrary memory. 

Abuse of Memory. — It is claimed, for many studies 
that are shown to be intrinsically worthless, that they 
are excellent for developing and strengthening memory. 
From the above considerations it may be inferred that 
those studies which are the best for supplying the mind 
with knowledge are the best for strengthening the 



THE MENTAL POWERS. 39 

memory. In many school-exercises there is an effort 
made to have the pnpil retain knowledge by the use of 
arbitrary memory alone. This is exemplified in the or- 
dinary method of teaching the alphabet. In this exer- 
cise the attention is directed to arbitrary characters which 
have no possible relation to anything ever before seen. 

The facts of geography and history are sometimes 
taught in the same manner, by an appeal to arbitrary 
memory alone. The result is that the facts, isolated in 
thought, make very little impression upon the mind, and 
are quickly forgotten. A lesson learned in this manner 
may be retained a sufficient time for recitation ; but as 
it consists of disconnected facts, it exhausts the mind in 
its effort to retain, and leaves no substance of mental 
growth. 

Memorizing the words of a text-book affords another 
illustration of waste of power in this direction. The at- 
tention is fixed primarily upon the words, and the idea 
may or may not be understood. "With no thread of 
thought connecting them with any other knowledge, 
the ideas must be retained, if retained at all, by arbitrary 
memory, resulting in mental exhaustion, and little or no 
permanent good. 

The Bight Use of Memory. — In all school-exercises 
in which the lesson of to-day has some relation to the 
one of yesterday, and these relations are pointed out 
and understood, they become sources of association, re- 
lieving the mind from the strain which each effort of 
arbitrary memory imposes. The idea is first under- 
stood, and then it is associated with the word that ex- 
pj:'esses it. The two are then linked to other expressed 
ideas of a similar character in a chain, so that they are 



40 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 

not only remembered, but the j are always in the proper 
order for use. 

Macaulay, in bis review of the life of Bacon, says : 
" He acknowledged that the memory may be disciplined 
to such a point as to be able to perform very extraor- 
dinary feats. But on such feats he sets little value. 
The habits of his mind, he tells us, are such that he 
is not disposed to rate highly an accomplishment, how- 
ever rare, that is of no particular use to mankind. As to 
these prodigious achievements of the memory, he ranks 
them with the exhibitions of rope-dancers and tumblers. 
' The two performances,' he says, ' are much of the same 
sort : the one is an abuse of the powers of the body, the 
other is an abuse of the powers of the mind. Both may, 
perhaps, excite our wonder, but neither is entitled to our 
respect.' " 

Perception and Memory. — From the foregoing dis- 
cussion it will be seen that distinct perceptions depend 
upon the acuteness of the senses, the distinctness of 
impressions made upon them, and upon the degree of 
attention which the mind gives to the sensations made. 
Memory demands all these conditions with the addi- 
tional one of connected perceptions ; and it is thus seen 
that the course of training best calculated to develop 
the perceptive powers is the best for the training of the 
memory. Exercises for the express purpose of strength- 
ening the memory are not only unnecessary, but ob- 
structive in the processes of education. 

Kecollection. — The mind has power to recall past 
perceptions that have been preserved by memory, and 
to bring them up for review or other use. This power 
of the mind is called recollection. The various degrees 



THE MENTAL POWERS. 4X 

of memory and recollections are known bj the general 
name of the retentive power of the mind. 

How Knowledge is Used. — The knowledge received 
from the outward world thi'ough the perceptive powers, 
and stored by the retentive powers, becomes the basis 
for the action of the mind independently of the objects 
from which the knowledge was derived. 

Imagination. — The perceptions derived from ob- 
jects come to the mind in a certain order and in a cer- 
tain combination, and are therefore associated in this 
order and combination. The mind has the power to 
sever the links by which these ideas are connected in 
their first presentation, and to rearrange them and link 
them into new combinations. The elements nsed in 
this process are all derived from perception, bnt the 
combination may be something entirely nnlike anything 
ever perceived, and essentially a new creation. This 
rearranging or creative power of the mind is called 
imagination. 

The Depreciation of this Faculty. — Many teachers 
in their practice seem to regard imagination as an en- 
tirely mmecessary appendage. They look upon it as a 
mere fancy, adapted to ornamental rather than useful 
purposes. As a general fact in schools, the culture of 
the imagination is systematically neglected, and in con- 
sequence one great human power remains uncultivated 
and unused. 

The sentiment has also gained wide popularity that, 
while a cultivated imagination may be of use to the 
painter and poet, it would be a positive hinderance in 
the performance of the sterner duties of life. ~Eo mis- 



42 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 

take could be more fatal to a true education tlian to 
carry this sentiment into common practice. 

A Highly Practical Faculty. — Imagination is the 
faculty of the mind which more than any other enables 
man to master the forces of I^ature, and raise himself 
above the domain of sense. By its operation and that 
of reason combined, the investigator is enabled to achieve 
the highest results in science and philosophy. By means 
of it the poet builds the verse which becomes a monu- 
ment of immortal beauty, and the inventor creates a 
machine which ameliorates the condition of the whole 
human family. It is the moving force in every step of 
human progress, by constructing ideals which are higher 
and better than any that have yet been realized. It is 
equally the moving force by which each individual is 
able to reach upward to a higher state of truth, good- 
ness, or beauty. It is a faculty that needs the most 
thorough cultivation in every human being, without re- 
gard to his condition or vocation in life. 

Dependence of Imagination. — As the imagination 
must make use of materials furnished by perception, it 
is readily seen that perception comes first in order, and 
that the value of imaginative results must largely de- 
pend upon the breadth of perception. "Without the 
training of the perceptive powers, and the storing of 
the mind with perceptive ideas, there is danger that the 
imagination will exceed its ordinary functions, and create 
facts, as well as combine real facts into new images. 

President Porter says : " The imagination is capable 
of steady growth, and requires constant cultivation. 
The creative imagination, when most gifted, can at first 
only rise to a certain height above the materials which 



THE MENTAL POWERS. 43 

experience gives. Its succeeding essays are founded 
upon those wliicli have been made before ; and it pro- 
ceeds by successive steps, more or less long and high, 
till it attains the most consummate achievements that 
are ever reached by man." 

Treatment of Imagination. — In the culture of the 
imagination two points are to be considered : first, that 
the power be aroused to action ; and second, that its ac- 
tion be placed in proper check and control. The first 
object is gained when the teacher understands the na- 
ture of imagination, and is able to provide exercises 
that will oblige the pupils to make new combinations. 
The second object can be gained only by a course of 
instruction that will provide objective study in sufficient 
variety and extent to fully employ the inquiring activity 
of the mind, and leave no deficiency in perception to 
be made up by imagination ; and that will so train the 
higher powers of the mind, that imagination will always 
be directed to productive results. The processes of cul- 
ture for the imagination are more fully described in 
succeeding chapters. 

Reason. — The mind has power to perceive relations 
which exist between different objects and processes of 
thought. It sees the truth common in a complex series 
of terms, and perceives the sequences of events and of 
natural occurrences. It traces effect to cause and cause 
to effect. From relations found in a few instances, it 
infers general laws, and it subjects its inferences to tests 
which verify the law. It applies laws in new instances, 
and brings all the laws of mind and matter into one 
coherent system. It directs imagination in its rearrange- 
ments so as to accomplish definite results. The power 



4i PRINCIPLES AND PPtACTICE OF TEACHING. 

of tlie mind to enter upon these processes, and to ac- 
complish, these results, is called reason. 

Definite instruction in regard to reasoning processes 
will be found in the chapters upon " Objective and Sub- 
jective Teaching." 

Judgment. — In addition to the faculties already 
enumerated, the mind has power to decide in regard to 
any matter brought before it. This decision may have 
reference to mere perception, or it may involve the 
most complex processes of imagination and reasoning. 
In the former case the process is simple, but in the lat- 
ter it becomes the highest function of which the mind 
is capable. This power of the mind, when applied to 
the various uses which reason has devised, points out 
the best, and also the best which is available, under all 
the circumstances of the case. It finally disposes of all 
matters brought before the mind, and from its decisions 
there is no appeal. This power of the mind is called 
judgment. 

Other Use of the Term. — Some authors prefer to con- 
sider the power of deciding, or of judgment, a part of 
each of the faculties with which it is associated, rather 
than a distinct faculty of the mind. For example, the 
judgment in regard to two perceptions is simply a neces- 
sary part of the completed perceptions ; and the judg- 
ment in regard to two processes of thought is a neces- 
sary part of the completed reasoning. So far as the 
practical application to the science of teaching is con- 
cerned, it is entirely unimportant which of these views 
is taken. The only relevant questions are: Has the 
mind the power of deciding ? and, "When is the power 
exercised ? 



THE MENTAL POWERS. 45 

Comprehensive Term. — The several activities bj 
which the mind "iises knowledge, apart from the objects 
in regard to which such knowledge is gained, including 
imagination, reason, and judgment, are known as the 
reflective powers of the mind. 

Mixed Mental Processes. — Besides the mental 
powers for gaining, retaining, and using knowledge, 
which have just been considered, there are various men- 
tal processes, involving two or more of these powers, to 
which special attention should be given. In some in- 
stances these processes are so important and elementary 
that they are frequently denominated faculties of the 
mind, and are so classified in mental analysis. In na- 
ture and function, however, they are generally consid- 
ered as mixed or complex mental processes. 

Comparison. — The power of the mind to distinguish 
likenesses and unlikenesses, either in objects or in pro- 
cesses of thought, is called comparison. When two 
objects are compared, both of which can be observed at 
once, the process seems to involve perception directed 
to two things instead of one, and a judgment in regard 
to the qualities observed. When one or both of the 
objects cannot be observed at the time, memory is 
brought into activity as an auxiliary. When comparison 
is directed to processes of thought, all the powers of the 
mind, including perception, memory, imagination, rea- 
son, and judgment, may be required. 

Conception. — The power of the mind to form a pict- 
ure of past perceptions or ideal combinations is called 
conception^ and the picture is called a concept. A con- 
ception of past ideas is merely a vivid recollection. A 



4:6 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 

conception of ideal scenes, or combinations of ideas, de- 
mands the exercise of memory to recall the elements out 
of which the combination is formed, and an effort of 
imagination to arrange these elements so as to produce 
the picture. A conception of objects described, but 
which have never been perceived, involves perception 
of famihar objects, memory of the ideas perceived, im- 
agination to rearrange the familiar ideas, and reason to 
make the new combination conform to the description 
given. 

Oeder of Mental Development. — The order of 
the development of the mind may be determined by 
considering the relations of knowledge to the mind, and 
by the study of the phenomena of mind in its gradual 
change from infancy to maturity. 

In regard to the relations of knowledge to mind, it 
will be seen, from the foregoing presentations, that 
knowledge must be obtained before it can be retained, 
and that it must be both obtained and retained before 
it can be used. 

In obtaining knowledge of objects, sensations must 
be experienced before attention can be given, and both 
sensation and attention must precede perception. 

In retaining knowledge, the successive steps must 
follow the corresponding steps of perception. First a 
single sensation is impressed upon the memory, then 
groups of sensations, and at a later period the principle 
of association obtains. 

The higher forms of association become possible 
only when the mind is comparatively well furnished 
with facts. 



THE MENTAL POWERS. 4Y 

Arranged according to tlie character of tlie knowl- 
edge upon wliicli they are exercised, the respective func- 
tions of the imagination, reason, and judgment seem to 
follow each other in the order in which they have been 
presented. 

These Principles Confirmed hy Observation. — By 
a careful study of the gradual growth of mind from in- 
fancy to maturity, it is found that the mental activities 
at each stage of growth exactly correspond to the prin- 
ciples of development evolved from a study of the rela- 
tions of knowledge to mind. 

In childhood the senses and the observing powers 
are keen and active, and the mind eagerly takes in and 
retains impressions from the outward world. During 
this period, mental activity is chiefly directed to the per- 
ception of the qualities of objects and their simple rela- 
tions. 

As the mind grows, the interest gradually changes 
from these qualities and simple relations to the more 
obscure and complex relations of objects. Finally it 
rises to the relations of thought, until at maturity the 
reflective powers are not only most active, but they 
guide and control the entire action of the mind. 

Age an Important Consideration. — In furnishing 
the mind with its appropriate knowledge, the particular 
period of life through which the individual is passing 
is to be considered as no less important than the stage 
of mental development at which he has arrived. Per- 
ceptive studies, or those that appeal directly to the 
senses, are best adapted to childhood, because they alone 
satisfy the mental power most active at the time, and 
furnish the materials upon which the higher mental 



48 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 

powers exercise themselves at a later period : studies, 
on the contrary, that appeal mostly to the reasoning 
faculties, have no place in the primary school, but be- 
long to the advanced course of study. At a period near 
maturity, or at middle age, the mind is usually more 
interested in reflective than in perceptive processes ; and 
if the perceptive period has passed without its legiti- 
mate work, the mind is poorly supplied with the ma- 
terials of thought, and the reflective powers, operating 
upon narrow and insufficient grounds, reach no just or 
valuable conclusions. 

Expression as Kelated to Mental Development. 
— The activities of the mind are so intimately associated 
with language that it is scarcely possible to consider 
the two as separate. All ideas and thoughts have their 
representatives in words and sentences, and some phi- 
losophers have contended that it is impossible to think 
without thinking in language. 

Without adopting this extreme view, however, we 
see that in all mental operations language acts an im- 
portant part. 'No sooner does a new idea present itself, 
than the mind at once seeks for a word to express it. 
Should no suitable word be found, the idea is expressed 
by a combination of words, or by a word coined for the 
occasion. The mental act of receiving ideas and pre- 
paring them for use is not complete until they are not 
only fully possessed by the mind but fitly expressed in 
words. 

This Position Illustrated. — In his work on Logic, Sir 
William Hamilton says : " A country may be overrun by 
an armed host, but it is only conquered by the establish- 



THE MENTAL POWERS. 49 

ment of fortresses. Words are tlie fortresses of thought. 
They enable us to realize our dominion over what we 
have already overrun in thought ; to make every intel- 
lectual conquest the basis of operations for others still 
beyond. Or another illustration : You have all heard 
of the process of tunneling through a sand-bank. In 
this operation it is impossible to succeed unless every 
foot — nay, almost every inch — ^in our progress be secured 
by an arch of masonry, before we attempt the excava- 
tion of another. IN'ow language is to the mind precisely 
what the arch is to the tunnel. The power of thinking 
and the power of excavation are not dependent on the 
word in the one case or the mason-work in the other ; 
but without these subsidiaries, neither process could 
be carried on beyond its rudimentary commencement. 
Though, therefore, we allow that every movement for- 
ward in language must be determined by an antecedent 
movement forward in thought ; still, unless thought be 
accompanied, at each point of its evolution, by a corre- 
sponding evolution of language, its further development 
is arrested." 

The Twofold Office of Language. — The advance of 
ideas and of language, then, must go on together. Lan- 
guage is used for the double purpose of expressing and 
of preserving knowledge. Should ideas fail of finding 
expression, they are imperfectly preserved or entirely 
lost. Should expression be sought in advance of ideas, 
the words uttered would be senseless as the chatterings 
of a parrot. In each step of progress the idea precedes 
the expression, but should be immediately followed by the 
word. The two henceforth become so blended that they 
cannot be separated in practice, and scarcely so in thought. 
3 



50 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 

The Importance of Cultivating Language along with 
thought, in teaching, even to the extent of carrying this 
twofold training into every branch of instruction, can- 
not be too strongly urged. At least half of the time of 
recitation should be given to expression, so that the 
pupil may have the advantage of language in both mas- 
tering and remembering the thought. When this 
method is habitually practised, language is usually ac- 
quired by secondary attention, while primary attention 
is fixed on the thought. Perspicuity of expression fol- 
lows clearness of thinking, and mistakes in expression 
usually result from want of clearness in the thought. 
The most effectual method of correcting such mistakes 
is by discussing the thought until it is clearly understood, 
and then requiring it to be expressed again. By fol- 
lowing this plan of criticism, in practical instruction, 
much onerous labor is saved the teacher, and many of 
the distinctive exercises in language of maturer years 
are rendered unnecessary. 



CHAPTER III. 

OBJECTIVE COURSE OF INSTRUCTION. 

General Yiew of Present Practices. — Until with- 
in a comparatively recent period, little attention has 
been given to the principles which mnst govern every 
intelligent effort to impart instruction. Teachers have 
been content to follow the methods in which they them- 
selves were taught, until the process of teaching has 
become a mere mechanical routine. 

Preliminary to the examination of philosophical 
methods of teaching, we shall notice some of the prac- 
tices — they can scarcely be called methods — which are 
always to be avoided. 

Wrong Practices. — The great conspicuous evil 
practice in our schools, once almost universal, and still 
widely prevalent, is that of obliging pupils to commit 
to memory the words of the text-book. This practice 
seems to have its origin either in the ignorance or the 
indolence of the teacher, and is one calculated directly 
to stultify, rather than expand, the mind. It fixes the 
primary attention on words rather than on thoughts, 
which words are arranged to express. The words mem- 
orized to-day are forgotten to-morrow, and often the 



52 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 

thouglit is never obtained. This process, by substitut- 
ing apparent for real knowledge, so far consumes the 
time of the pupil that the attainment of real knowledge 
is rendered nearly or quite impossible during the school 
period. 

Examj^les of this Practice. — Pupils are frequently 
obliged to recite, verbatim^ the outlines of history, and 
teachers often defend the practice of rote-teaching in 
this study after they have given it up in the other 
branches of instruction. Upon examining a class in- 
structed in this manner, in one of the most noted schools 
in the country, a few years since, it was found that the 
pupils could glibly repeat the lesson of to-day ; that they 
could recite about half of that of yesterday ; but that 
they could not remember one word of the lesson of a 
week ago. While this was the fact in regard to the 
words of the lesson, it was found that the thoughts 
which the words were supposed to represent had been 
entirely neglected — ^no one in the class having any 
knowledge of the sequence or relations of events. 

A little girl of eleven years came home late one day, 
and, on inquiry, said she was detained because she could 
not recite her lesson in geography. As she had forgot- 
ten but one word, however, she soon learned it, com- 
pleted the lesson, and was dismissed. When asked what 
the word was, she could not tell, although she came 
fresh from her recitation only across the street. Upon 
examination, the following was found to be the sentence 
which made the difficulty, and which she and the other 
members of the class were obliged to repeat : " The 
Danubian provinces of Servia, Moldavia, and Walla- 
chia are nominally independent of the Sublime Porte." 



OBJECTIVE COURSE OF INSTRUCTION. 53 

Further investigation proved tliat tlie teacher had made 
no effort to explain the meaning of any one of the 
terms used, that no maps were employed in the recita- 
tion, and that the members of the class were as pro- 
foundly ignorant of the subject they were supposed to 
be learning as though it had been written in Choctaw. 

Rote-Learning. — The memorizing of definitions, 
principles, and rules in science, before the facts upon 
which they are based are known, is equally repugnant 
to the well-settled principles of mental development. 

Herbert Spencer says: "The once universal prac- 
tice of learning by rote is daily falling more into dis- 
credit. All modern authorities condemn the old me- 
chanical way of teaching the alphabet. The rote-system, 
like other systems of its age, made more of the forms 
and symbols than of the things symbolized. To repeat 
the words correctly was everything, to understand the 
meaning nothing ; and thus the spirit was sacrificed to 
the letter. It is at length perceived that, in this case as 
in others, such a result is not accidental but necessary ; 
that in proportion as there is attention to the signs, 
there must be inattention to the things signified." 

Nervous Action. — Dr. Carpenter, in his "Mental 
Physiology," clearly shows the manner in which im- 
pressions upon the nerves are received and treated. 
The nervous centres consist of the cerebrum or anterior 
brain, the principal nervous mass, and of the subordinate 
centres, the sensorium or base of the brain, the spinal 
cord, and the ganglions. Impressions made upon the 
nerves, and carried to the cerebrum, become a possession 
of the mind and are transmuted into intelligence ; those 
carried to the spinal cord or ganglions produce reflex 



54 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 

or automatic actions which, do not involve intelligence ; 
and those carried to the sensorium and no farther, pro- 
duce a semi-reflex action in which there are only faint 
traces of intelligence. Impressions made upon the sen- 
Borinm are reflected back in the same manner as re- 
ceived, as when words or formulas are repeated when 
not understood. 

Semi-Reflex Action. — The following quotation from 
a late article in the London Times reviewing the work 
of Dr. Carpenter further illustrates this principle, and 
shows its application directly to the work of teaching. 

" There are probably few teachers who have not 
heard something about the possibility of ' learning by 
rote,' which is one form of mere sensorial activity in 
which certain sounds have become associated with the 
sight of certain written or printed symbols, and are ut- 
tered when these symbols are seen and remembered ; but 
there probably is not one in a thousand who understands 
what * learning by rote ' is ; how it is accomplished by 
the nervous centres ; how it differs from learning with 
the intelligence ; and how it may be detected and ex- 
posed under whatever guise it may be concealed. 

"The great majority of teachers think that they 
have banished learning by rote when their pupils are 
able to explain their first answer to a question by a 
second one ; the second, in most cases, being as purely 
sensorial a symbol as the first, and the original sight 
symbol, with its two vocal equivalents, being really, as 
far as ideation is concerned, an unknown quantity, for 
which either of the two other unknown quantities may 
be substituted. 

" One of the most familiar illustrations of sensorial 



OBJECTIVE COURSE OF INSTRUCTION. 55 

action is that which, was recorded by the late Mr. Brook- 
field, in which two children, aged about eleven years, 
who did their arithmetic and reading tolerably well, 
who wrote something pretty legible, intelligible, and 
sensible about an omnibus, and about a steamboat, were 
called upon to write the answers of the Church Cate- 
chism to two questions. The children had been accus- 
tomed to repeat the Catechism during half an hour each 
day in day-school and Sunday-school, for four or five 
years, and this is what they wrote : 

" ' My duty toads God is to bleed in him to fearin 
and to loaf withold your arts withold my mine withold 
my sold and with my sernth to whirchp and to give 
thanks to put my old trast in him to call upon him to 
onner his old name and his world and to save him truly 
all the days of my life's end.' 

" ^ My dooty tords my nabers to love him as thyself 
to do to all men as I wed thou shall do and to me to 
love onner and suke my farther and mother to onner 
and to bay the queen and all that one pet in a forty un- 
der her to smit myself to all my goones teaches spiritial 
pastures and marsters to oughten mysilf lordly and 
every to all my betters to hut no body by would nor deed 
to be treu in jest in all my deelins to beer no malis nor 
ated in your arts to kep my ands from peckin and steel 
my turn from evil speak and lawing and slanders not to 
civet or desar othermans good but to learn labour trewly 
to get my own leaving and to do my doody in that state 
if life and to each it his please God to call men.' 

" It will be observed that these written answers, if 
recited with sufficient rapidity, in the customary school- 
room patter, really bear a horrible likeness to the sounds 



56 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 

of the genuine one ; and there can be but little doubt 
that the writers and their classmates had so recited 
them for years, to the entire satisfaction of all who were 
' pet in a forty ' over them. 

" Even in Mr. Brookfield's report, from which the 
examples are taken, there is no evidence of any percep- 
tion that they represent a nervous action which, as a 
result of teaching, is wholly wrong in kind, and not 
only in degree, and which, so far as it is permitted to 
continue, is not merely an expression of waste of time, 
but of the growth of habits, directly antagonistic to, and 
incompatible with, those which it should be the chief 
object of instruction to encourage. 

" Until this is recognized and acted upon, and until 
teachers have some knowledge of the profound differ- 
ence between the two kinds of action as modes of men- 
tal operation, it is hopeless to expect from schools an 
amount of cultivation of the intelligence at all commen- 
surate with the magnitude and costliness of the ma- 
chinery which is employed." 

Studies too Difficult. — Another habit, which is very 
prevalent and which is almost as pernicious, is that of 
assigning to pupils studies too difficult for their compre- 
hension. Without really understanding a single prin- 
ciple of the subject taught, they career along, occasion- 
ally catching a gleam of knowledge, but falling far short 
of what might be accomplished in the same length of 
time by rightlyd-irected efforts. 

Examples. — The prevalent method of teaching men- 
tal arithmetic to small children is a case in point. Be- 
cause mental arithmetic has been proved to be a most 
excellent discipline for the mind at the proper time, it 



OBJECTIVE COURSE OF INSTRUCTION. 57 

therefore seems to be assnmed that it will be of great 
value at all times. Hence it has been extensively in- 
troduced into primary schools. Bj the study of it 
young pupils have been obliged to go through reason- 
ing processes which would severely tax the mental pow- 
ers of adults, and this, too, before their reasoning facul- 
ties were developed sufficiently to readily understand 
the subject. The result has been that frequently pupils 
have learned the formulas by which the examples are 
analyzed, just as they would learn any other form of 
words, while the real reasoning contained in the process 
was never understood. 

In grammar, the same mistake is often made. Through 
the erroneous notion that English grammar teaches how 
to speak and write the English language correctly, text- 
books in grammar are put into the hands of young chil- 
dren, and their minds are crammed v/ith definitions and 
rules concerning the philosophic structure of language, 
and this before their mental powers are so far developed 
as to comprehend the principles which are sought to be 
given. The matter memorized, having failed to reach 
the understanding, becomes a hinderance rather than a 
help to education. 

In reading-classes the same fault obtains. Pupils 
are permitted, through the ambition or weakness of their 
teacher, to read in books entirely above their compre- 
hension ; and the result is, that they fail to obtain any 
knowledge from their reading, while the delivery, as 
a necessary consequence, becomes exj)ressionless and 
monotonous. 

Faults of Omission. — The next great fault is a de- 
fect or omission rather- than a positive evil. The pri- 



58 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OP TEACHING. 

mary exercises for training the observing powers are 
neglected to such an extent that, as far as the schools 
are concerned, pupils might almost as well be born deaf 
and blind. The objects with which they come daily in 
contact, the phenomena which constantly appear before 
their eyes, the facts of ]^atiire and of consciousness upon 
which all science and philosophy are based, are nearly, 
if not entirely, neglected. At the same time the studies 
pursued have little connection with matters of common 
interest, and, as a consequence, fail of bestowing that 
practical knowledge and breadth of culture necessary to 
the highest success. 

Examples. — Generally, in schools, very little if any 
attention is given to the open book of ISTature, which 
contains lessons of such transcendent importance and 
interest. One series of the lessons thus neglected is 
the peculiar stratification, marking, and fossils of the 
rocks, each of which is a key to a history more profound 
than that recorded in any human chronology. Another 
similar neglected series is found in the wonderful vari- 
ety of plants, each one an object of beauty, and all to- 
gether, in their manner of growth, in their distribution, 
and in their peculiar habits, furnishing lessons which 
cannot fail to leave their impress of mental growth, and 
to become sources of never-ending delight while life 
and sense last. The curious and strange forms of ani- 
mal life, the metamorphoses of insects from creeping 
worms to gorgeous butterflies, the peculiar habits of 
beasts and birds, and the instincts which so nearly ap- 
proach reasoning, are all replete with these interesting 
lessons, and they are usually so neglected that the mind 
fails of comprehending the evidences of intelligence 



OBJECTIVE COURSE OF INSTRUCTION. 59 

found in the infinite yariety and prof onnd laws of the 
nniverse. 

Caiiyle says : " For many years it has been one of 
my most constant regrets that no schoolmaster of mine 
had a knowledge of natural history, so far, at least, as 
to have taught me the grasses that grow by the wayside, 
and the little winged and wingless neighbors that are 
continually meeting me with a salutation which I can- 
not answer, as things are. Why did not somebody teach 
me the constellations, too, and make me at home in the 
starry heavens which are always overhead, and which I 
don't half know to this day ? I love to prophesy that 
the time will come when the schoolmaster will be strictly 
required to possess these two capabilities, and that no 
ingenious little denizen of this universe be thencefor- 
ward debarred from his right of liberty in these two 
departments, and doomed to look on them, as if across 
grated fences, all his life." 

Race and Individual Growth. — The study of his- 
tory shows that the progress of the race, when the whole 
human family is taken into consideration, has been a 
continuous growth or change in a definite direction, and 
according to certain established principles in the evolu- 
tion of mind. Commencing at a period when physical 
ISTature tyrannized over man, the change has been con- 
tinuously in the direction, first, of subduing Nature, then 
of quickening and refining the senses ; after this, of 
exalting the reason above the senses, and of converting 
meagre notions into definite, connected, and well-defined 
thought. 

By a careful study of mental development, we find 



60 PEINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 

that the individual passes through changes analogous to 
the changes that affect the race. In infancy there is the 
same helplessness in regard to I^ature, the same blunt- 
ness of the perception, the same subordination of the 
reason to the senses, and the same vagueness of ideas 
and thought. From infancy to maturity, the progress 
is continuous toward making I^ature a servant rather 
than a master, of making thought systematic and defi- 
nite, and of rendering each step in intelligence a help 
toward the attainment of higher intelligence. 

Historical Examples. — In the history of the Israel- 
ites, as given in the Old Testament Scriptures, we may 
see the development of a people from a very low con- 
dition of slavery and ignorance to a point of intellectual 
strength and refinement made remarkable by their dis- 
tinguished prophets, poets, and teachers. The contrast 
set up by a comparison of this people, just liberated 
from Egyptian bondage, on the one hand, and the na- 
tion to which Jesus was born on the other, is very 
striking. The educational means used in the work of 
this development (we have here nothing to do with the 
spiritual cultus of the Jews) is equally worthy of note. 
At first, the stupid and sensuous mind could be aroused 
and instructed only by addressing the senses. Gradually 
the tyranny of sense yields to the higher power of an 
unfolding imagination, and finally the old system of 
symbol and song passes away, and the reason of this 
people is addressed by the statement of principles and 
the analysis of mental facts. Yet, even in this new 
system of education, the Great Teacher is careful not to 
violate the laws of mental growth. To the untutored 
pupils whom He gathered about Him, He said : " I have 



OBJECTIVE COURSE OF INSTRUCTION. 61 

many things to say nnto yon, but ye cannot bear them 
now." 

An equally remarkable development is illustrated in 
the history of the English nation, which, with its settled 
principles of government, its reflective literature, its 
art, and philosophy, springs from an uncouth Anglo- 
Saxon origin. The advancement of a nation may be 
judged from the progress of its literature ; for the liter- 
ature of a people indicates, at each period, the steps of 
its intellectual development. The beginnings of a na- 
tion's literature may be traced to an attempt to record 
the simplest facts of observation and sense, or the com- 
bination of these facts into rude imaginative creations. 
Hence legend, story, poetry, and the drama, always pre- 
cede systematic history, dialectics, or philosophy. In 
the history of every enlightened nation, the presenta- 
tion of fact and the representation of picture in answer 
to the question " What ? " have always taken precedence 
of the explanation of facts or the analysis of principles 
in answer to the question " "Why ? " The age of Homer 
comes before the ages of Thales, Pythagoras, and Aris- 
totle. The primitive literature of Rome appears in the 
form of minstrelsy. The literature of England passes 
through the simple poems and tales of Piers Plough- 
man, Mandeville, and Chaucer, before it reaches the 
stern philosophy of Bacon, or the ripe fruit of the lit- 
erature of the Elizabethan age. 

So also in regard to the development of government. 
The blind struggle of centuries brought at last the 
Great Charter ; but defined principles of government 
were of much later date. Upon this point Macaulay 
says : " It is only in a refined and speculative age that 



62 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 

a polity is constructed on system. In mde societies the 
progress of government resembles the progress of lan- 
guage and of versification. Rude societies have lan- 
guage, and often copious and energetic language ; but 
they have no scientific grammar, no definitions of nouns 
and verbs, no names for declensions, moods, tenses, 
voices. Rude societies have versification, and often 
versification of great power and sweetness ; but they 
have no metrical canons ; and the minstrel, whose num- 
bers, regulated solely by his ear, are the delight of 
his audience, would himself be unable to say of how 
many dactyls and trochees each of his lines consists. 
As eloquence exists before syntax and song before pros- 
ody, so government may exist in a high degree of ex- 
cellence before the limits of legislative, executive, and 
judicial power have been traced with precision." 

From the study of the development of the race we 
obtain a knowledge of those general principles which 
control the development of the individual ; and con- 
versely, the careful examination of individual growth 
will serve to throw light on obscure points in the his- 
torical development of the race. The knowledge gained 
from this twofold examination of individual and race 
development has scarcely yet been organized into a sci- 
ence ; but enough is now understood to be of the great- 
est service to the teacher in preparing his course of 
study and in determining the methods to be pursued. 

Objective or Inductive Method. — The first step in 
mental growth and consequently in education is to ob- 
tain knowledge. This knowledge comes in the form of 
perceptions of the qualities of objects, or facts in regard 



OBJECTIVE COURSE OF INSTRUCTION. ^3 

to the relations of objects. The primary perceptions or 
facts come through the senses. This primary knowledge 
becomes the basis for all subsequent operations of the 
mind. 

The second step is a comparison of two or more per- 
ceptions and the recognition of their likenesses and un- 
likenesses. This comparison commences with objects 
the qualities of which, such as form, size, and color, are 
like or unlike. The facts concerning objects and their 
relations are also compared in the same manner. 

Groujping. — When objects are alike, they are asso- 
ciated in thought, and form a group. Qualities of ob- 
jects may be considered apart from the objects them- 
selves, and associated by their likeness, forming a group 
of qualities — as square, large, and red. Facts concern- 
ing objects may in like manner be compared, and formed 
into a single group by their likenesses. 

When objects are unlike, they are separated in thought 
and are placed apart, foiTaing the basis of different 
groups. Qualities of objects, and facts concerning ob- 
jects, are in the same way separated by their unlikenesses 
and formed into different groups. Unlikenesses as well 
as likenesses form the basis of association for the assist- 
ance of memory. 

Objective Classification. — In comparing a large num- 
ber of objects, several being found alike may constitute 
a group; several others unlike the first may also be 
alike and form another group, and this process may con- 
tinue until a number of distinct groups are formed. 
The basis of each group is likeness, and the basis of 
the several groups is unlikeness. When these several 
groups, unlike in particular qualities, are alike in some 



64: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 

general characteristics, the different groups are called 
classes, and the process of forming them is termed Oh- 
jective Classification. 

Generalization, Law, Princij^le, Definition. — The 
characteristic in which the different classes are alike is a 
general truth, and the process or power of obtaining a 
general truth is called generalization. When the gen- 
eral truth expresses invariable relations, it is called a law. 
Assumed as the basis of further mental operations, a law 
is called a principle. When the general truth expresses 
a description, or fixes the limits of a subject, it is called 
a definition. 

Examples. — ^A number of objects may be compared. 
From their likenesses we call one group hats, another 
group l)00ts, and still another coats. The articles in each 
group are alike in regard to the particular use for which 
they are made ; and the groups are unlike because the 
uses of the articles in the different groups are not iden- 
tical. By a further investigation, however, we find that 
hats, boots, and coats are all clothing for the protection 
and comfort of the body — ^the general truth arrived at 
being the idea expressed by the word clothing. A de- 
scription of this idea is a definition. 

A phenomenon is observed, like the falling of an 
apple. This fact is compared with the falling of other 
substances, and a number of facts are grouped together 
by their likenesses. We observe, also, that bodies, like 
the articles on a table, do not fall to the ground. We 
have now two groups, and the difference we observe be- 
tween them relates to their support. By a further in- 
vestigation we find that all bodies not supported fall to 
the ground, and this conclusion is a law. By a wider 



OBJECTIVE COURSE OF INSTRUCTION. 65 

investigation, involving a greater nnmber of facts and 
relations, we infer that all bodies have a tendency to ap- 
proach each other, and this inference is also a law — ^bnt 
a law of wider application than the preceding one. 

This process of commencing with simple perceptions, 
and ending in the discovery of a law or in the expression 
of a definition, is 'primary^ because it embraces the first 
steps which the mind must take in the acquisition of 
knowledge ; it is objective^ because it begins with an ob- 
ject ; it is synthetic^ because it aggregates or puts to- 
gether ; and it is inductive, because it leads into a law 
or principle. 

Benefits of the Objective Method. — In regard to 
mental development, the objective course contributes 
mainly to mental growth, and it is the only possible 
course by which full mental growth can be attained. 
By this method the faculties are exercised in the exact 
order in which they are successively brought into 
activity by a natural and normal development. The 
method itself has a tendency to arouse this activity in 
its natural order. 

In regard to knowledge, the objective method is the 
very way in which aU definite ideas of the outward 
world are obtained. It is also the course of discovery. 
By means of it each individual learns the facts of the 
universe, and becomes acquainted with the laws which 
control all phenomena. Through it the human race 
gained its first knowledge of E'ature, and took its first 
steps in civilization. 

Sj^irit of Modem Science. — The great revolution 
efifected by Bacon is largely attributable to the ends 
which he proposed as the proper ones for all scientific 



QQ PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 

and pliilosopliic investigation. These ends consisted 
Jlrst, in multiplying human enjoyments and in mitigat- 
ing human sufiering. The ancient philosophy which 
ruled over the thoughts of men, up to the time of the 
great inductive philosopher, " disdained to be useful, 
and was content to be stationary." Bacon valued knowl- 
edge in the direct proportion as it promoted utility and 
human progress. 

The change in the ends proposed necessitated a 
change in methods. "When the end of philosophy was 
an ideal and unattainable exaltation of spirit above ma- 
terial needs and desires, the methods pursued were 
purely speculative, and independent of the facts of !N^a- 
ture or consciousness. When the end was the promotion 
of human welfare, then these facts were of the most pro- 
found significance, and nothing could be considered " too 
insignificant for the attention of the wisest which is not 
too insignificant to give pain or pleasure to the meanest." 

From this change in the ends and methods of thought 
and investigation, modern science had its birth, and 
since that time has performed its wondrous mission of 
beneficence to humanity. Its progress, however, has 
been marked by a continuous battle with the inertia 
and reactionary forces of society — a conflict still far 
from being ended. 

The introduction of the objective course into schools 
is but the recognition in education of the ends and meth- 
ods which have proved of such eminent advantage in 
science. And when both are thoroughly understood and 
appreciated by our teachers, we may expect a result as 
beneficent as that already effected in science, and one 
much more universal in its application. 



CHAPTER lY. 

SUBJECTIVE COURSE OF INSTRUCTION. 

The Subjective Method. — ^When all tlie facts bear- 
ing upon a subject liave been acquired, compared, and 
classified, according to the objective metbod ; and when 
generalizations have been made resulting in laws or 
definitions, tben tlie subject has become a possession of 
the mind, and needs to be arranged in such order as to 
be most easily and effectively used. At this point the 
knowledge under consideration becomes the basis for 
the subjective course. 

This knowledge is expressed either in the form of a 
law, or a definition. "When expressed as a law, the sub- 
jective course consists of successive applications of the 
law to new departments of thought and research. The 
results of these applications of law are at once a verifi- 
cation of the law and the placing of phenomena in the 
order of dependence. The details of the method of 
applying laws to the investigation of science and phi- 
losophy embraces the whole of deductive logic. 

Definition. — ^When subjective knowledge starts from 
a definition, the first thing to consider is the definition 
itself. The essential elements of a true definition are 



68 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 

simplicity and truth. The definition must be expressed 
in language more perspicuous and simple than the word 
or thing to be defined ; and it must embrace and ex- 
press the truth, the whole truth, and nothing but the 
truth. 

Examples of Definition. — Addition is Addition. 
This is not a real definition, because the word to be de- 
fined is used in the definition — ^thus producing mere 
tautology. 

Addition is the Process of Adding two or more Quan- 
tities. In this case the word defined is repeated in one 
of its forms, and nothing simpler or more easily under- 
stood is given. This is called " defining in a circle." 

Addition is the Aggregation of the Individualities 
that Comjpose an Entity. Here the words employed 
are more difiicult of comprehension and less simple and 
perspicuous than the word to be defined. 

Geography is a Description of the Moon. This 
definition is at fault because it is not true. 

Geograjphy is a Descrijption of Eurojpe. This 
definition does liot express the whole truth. 

Geograjphy is a Description of the Earth. This^ 
definition expresses more than the truth. 

In all subjective work the importance of definition 
can scarcely be over-estimated. Every definition, before 
it is finally accepted, should be tested by the principles 
already illustrated. 

Division of a Subject. — The second step in the sub- 
jective course is the division of a subject into distinct 
parts. This division must be made on a single basis, 
and the several parts must represent real differences. 

These divisions may be natural, as the division of 



SUBJECTIVE COURSE OF INSTRUCTION. 69 

stars into fixed stars and planets ; or tliey may be artifi- 
cial and conventional, as the divisions in the census- 
tables — separating persons by their ages into classes em- 
bracing those under ten years and those over ten years 
of age. 

Imjperfect Division. — Whenever it is found, on a 
thorough examination of each of the parts, that they 
fail to exhaust the subject, the division is faulty, be- 
cause the parts are insufiicient in number. And when 
the parts are found to overlap each other, and partially 
to treat of the same department of the subject, the di- 
vision is imperfect, either from having too great a num- 
ber of parts, or from a failure to observe the relations 
which subsist between the basis and the parts. 

Subjective Classification. — The several parts into 
which the subject is divided are next arranged for ex- 
amination in the order of their dependence — ^the part 
which is independent receiving the first attention, the 
one depending on the first coming next in order, and 
so on. This division of a subject into its constituent 
parts upon a single basis, and the arrangement of the 
parts according to the laws of dependence, is known as 
subjective classification. 

Illustration. — Take, for example, grammar. The 
subjective treatment would call first for a definition 
which would exactly limit the subject. This definition 
would, of course, exclude the idea that the purpose of 
grammar is to enable us to speak and write correctly, 
since these two ends are each an art which can only be 
attained by practice. Upon the basis of the words 
that compose the language, grammar is divided into Or- 
thography, which treats of the formation of words ; Ety- 



70 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 

mology, which, treats of the classification of words ; Syn- 
tax, which treats of the formation of sentences out of 
words ; and Prosody, which treats of the classification 
of sentences. In the order of the examination of these 
parts, it will be seen that words must be formed before 
they can be classified ; that they must be formed and 
classified before they can be made into sentences ; and 
sentences must be formed before they can be classified. 
Hence, Orthography is the independent term. Etymol- 
ogy is the term depending upon Orthography alone, Syn- 
tax the term depending upon Orthography and Ety- 
mology, and Prosody the term depending upon all of 
the preceding. 

Ojpjposing Theories. — A controversy has arisen 
among scientific men in regard to the classification of 
natural history : one party insisting that the divisions 
shall be grouped around types, while the opposite party 
is equally strenuous that all divisions shall be founded 
upon definition. From the analysis here made, it will 
be seen that the classification resulting from the process 
of discovery is objective, and almost of necessity is 
based on types; while the classification which comes 
from a more extended knowledge, viewed as a whole, is 
subjective, and is based upon definitions. 

Scientifio View. — Huxley says : " So long as our in- 
formation concerning them is imperfect, we class objects 
together according to resemblances which we feel but 
cannot define ; we group them around types, in short. 
Thus, if you ask an ordinary person what kinds of ani- 
mals there are, he will probably say : Beasts, birds, rep- 
tiles, fishes, and insects. Ask him to define a beast from 
a reptile, and he cannot do it ; but he says : ^ Things 



SUBJECTIVE COURSE OF INSTRUCTION. ^1 

like a cow or a horse are beasts, and things like a frog 
or lizard are reptiles.' You see, he does class by type, 
and not by definition. Bnt how does this classification 
differ from that of the scientific zoologist ? How does 
the meaning of the scientific class-name of ' mammaha ' 
differ from the nnscientific name of leasts f Why, ex- 
actly because the former depends on a definition, and 
the latter on a type. The class mammalia is scientifically 
defined as ' all vertebrated animals that suckle their 
young.' Here is no reference to type, but a definition 
rigorous enough for a geometrician; and such is the 
character which every scientific naturalist recognizes as 
that to which his classes must aspire — ^knowing, as he 
does, that classification by type is simply an acknowl- 
edgment of ignorance and a temporary device." 

Definition of Divisions. — The third step in the sub- 
jective course is the treatment of the several parts as 
though each were a new subject. These parts are to be 
taken in the order of their arrangement, and each one 
defined — the definition to conform to the standard al- 
ready described. The name given to each part, as far 
as possible, should indicate the basis upon which the di- 
vision is made. 

Sub-divisions. — The fourth step is the separation of 
the divisions or sub-divisions, following the same law and 
the same order as the first general divisions of the sub- 
ject. These steps of successive definition and division fol- 
low each other alternately until the ultimate facts, which 
lie at the foundation of the whole subject, are reached. 

Chaeacteeistics of the Subjective Couese. — This 
process of commencing with the knowledge of a subject. 



72 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 

expressed as a definition, and ending in ultimate facts, 
is secondary^ because it comes after the primary course ; 
it is subjectim^ because it begins with the subject 
already in the mind; it is analytic, because it takes 
apart ; and it is deductive, because it leads from a law 
or definition. 

delations to Development. — In regard to mental 
development, the subjective course contributes mainly 
to mental strength, and through it alone can such strength 
be obtained. The effect of the subjective treatment 
upon the mind is analogous to the effect of muscular 
exercise upon the body. While to some extent this 
process may contribute to growth, its principal effect 
lies in the increase of power. 

Belations to Knowledge. — In regard to knowledge, 
the subjective course points out the way in which 
knowledge may be used. It is the course of application. 
By means of it each individual learns to bring phenom- 
ena under the domain of law, and to see in all phenom- 
ena the evidence of law. Through it the race turns 
knowledge to profitable account, and makes it con- 
tribute to the promotion of human welfare. 

Place in an Educational Course. — The subjective 
course rounds out and completes education. It points 
out the way in which objective knowledge can be ren- 
dered practically useful. With a broad foundation of 
facts observed and laws discovered, this course coordi- 
nates them all, opening the way for new investigation 
in higher fields of thought, and becoming emphatically 
the course of wisdom. Keeping in view that the end 
to be attained is human welfare, it converts all knowl- 
edge into philosophical agencies, and regards knowledge 



SUBJECTIVE COURSE OF INSTRUCTION. 73 

as valuable in proportion as it can be made to conduce 
to tbis end. 

Misuse of the Subjective Method. — By attempting 
to use subjective metbods witbout a sufficient objective 
foundation, buman tbougbt bas been led into unreal 
and fanciful speculations, wbicb bave often been dig- 
nified by tbe name of pbilosopby. Tbe processes of 
tbougbt growing upon tbese narrow bases require tbe 
same expenditure of vital force as tbose built upon 
broader foundations, but tbey lack fruit. To use tbe 
expressive language of Macaulay : " A pedestrian may 
sbow as mucb vigor on a tread-mill as on a bigbway ; 
but, on tbe road tbe vigor will assuredly carry bim 
forward, and on tbe tread-mill be will not advance an 
incb. Many of tbe old pbilosopbies were tread-mills, 
not patbs. Tbey were made up of controversies wbicb 
were always beginning again. Tbey were contrivances 
for baving mucb exertion and no progress. During 
tbe time of tbeir continuance tbe buman race ac- 
cordingly, instead of marcbing, merely marked time. 
Words, and mere words, and notbing but words, bad 
been tbe fruit of all tbe toil of all tbe most renowned 
sages of sixty generations." 

By enlarging tbe basis of tbougbt, tbe same vigor in 
tbinking bas produced all tbese modern improvements 
wbicb bave contributed so mucb to tbe welfare of tbe 
race. Tbis enlarged tbougbt is sbown in tbe mental 
and moral spberes, as well as in tbe spbere of pbysical 
action ; and now tbe question wbicb is most frequently 
asked by pbilosopbers is : " How will tbis tbougbt affect 
tbe condition of men ? " Tbe old fruitless pbilosopbies, 
witb tbeir narrow formalisms and unattainable ends, 
4 



Y4 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 

became firmly intrenclied in the schools, where they 
have had supreme control until within a comparatively 
recent period. Missing the great ends of education, 
these schools have often borne fruit of words only. The 
faults of the systems were precisely the faults of the 
philosophies upon which they were founded, and the 
remedy for these faults is to be found in a generous 
objective course to precede all efforts at subjective 
reasoning. 

The Objective and Subjective Coueses Com- 
bined. — From the foregoing discussion it will be seen 
that to a complete education, both the objective and 
subjective courses are indispensable, and therefore 
neither can be considered of more importance than the 
other. It will also be seen that in regard to time the 
relative place of each has been determined by its very 
nature. 

It should be borne in mind that in any given subject 
it is not necessary that the whole of the objective course 
be completed before the subjective is begun. Every 
part of the objective work may be separately put into 
subjective forms. 

Example. — In the study of arithmetic, the pupil may 
be taught how to put numbers together so that the result 
shall be the same in value as the numbers first taken. 
He may derive his first knowledge of this process from 
objects ; then, he may use concrete numbers when the 
objects are not present ; and finally, he may be led to 
use abstract numbers. When the mental process has 
been mastered, he may be taught the value of figures ; 
the method of expressing numbers by figures ; the man- 



SUBJECTIVE COURSE OF INSTRUCTION. ^5 

ner of arranging figures for adding; tlie convenient 
method of adding the numbers represented bj the in- 
dividual figures so as to produce the correct result ; the 
means of expressing this result, and the manner of ver- 
ifying it. He may then be led to describe the process 
he has gone through, and this description becomes the 
rule for future use. Then he learns that the whole 
work which he has done is addition, A brief synopsis 
of this work, which he thoroughly understands, is a defi- 
nition. This work is objective. It begins with the 
facts, and proceeds through a series of comparisons and 
generalizations until the definition is at last reached. 

The subjective course can now be brought into oper- 
ation. The definition is formally and accurately stated, 
and the subject is divided into its several departments 
of methods of writing the numhers, operations, rule, 
proof. Each of these is, in turn, divided until the 
facts of addition are reached. "What is true of addition 
is true of each one of the divisions of arithmetic ; after 
the objective development, each may be stated in sub- 
jective forms. When arithmetic in all its forms has 
been examined in this manner, it may be treated sub- 
jectively as a whole, and the relations of the various 
parts to each other and to the whole may be ascertained. 

The True Course as Belated to Discovery and Ap- 
plication. — The objective course dealing with objects 
and minutise reaches laws and principles, by occupying 
a comparatively narrow field of investigation. The sub- 
jective course, by applying the principles discovered 
to every possible case, widens this field, and in this way 
enlarges the conceptions which follow investigation. 

The objective course furnishes the materials indis- 



76 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OP TEACHING. 

pensable to sound tMnking and correct conclusions. 
The subjective appropriates these materials and conclu- 
sions, and applies them to specific ends. 

The objective course busies itself with finding out 
what are the facts in the case, and what these facts sig- 
nify. The subjective employs itself in arranging the 
facts in order, and in devoting them to such uses as will 
most effectually serve humanity. 

The Two Courses as Belated to the Teacher's Worh — 
In this work the objective course is necessary in de- 
veloping the perceptive powers; in cultivating habits 
of close attention on the part of pupils ; in showing the 
way in which laws may be discovered, and in pointing 
out the method in which the mind must act to reach 
just conclusions in any fi^ld of research or investigation. 

The subjective course is valuable to the teacher for 
arranging knowledge and placing it in its order of de- 
pendence. This arrangement enables him to determine 
the successive steps necessary in both the objective and 
subjective methods of presentation ; and further enables 
him to make the most effective application of knowl- 
edge to human affairs. 

By the application of subjective principles, both 
teacher and pupils are enabled to become intelligent in 
regard to the results of investigations which they have not 
made objectively. To make this latter result possible, 
however, two things are necessary : T'irst, that the prin- 
ciple itself shall be obtained by a strictly objective pro- 
cess ; and secondly, that the new investigation shall be 
similar to the one already accomplished, and one to 
which the principle fully applies. 

Mcample. — In the study of physics, by observation 



SUBJECTIVE COURSE OF INSTRUCTION. ^7 

and experiment, we may find that water presses equally 
in all directions, and that the pressure is in direct ratio 
to its depth. "We may now infer that other fluids like 
water will be subject to the same laws, and we do not 
need to make experiments with each one. When we 
find it stated that gaseous fluids are subject to similar 
laws, we accept the statement, although we have made 
no experiments upon these fluids. By the study of 
the facts in the first instance we derived the law ; and 
henceforth, whenever we find an application of this 
law in a new direction, we fully understand the matter, 
and do not require that the demonstration shall be 
made in each specific instance. 

Errors of Reversing the Two Courses. — A law as- 
sumed or taken on trust, without any knowledge of the 
process by which it was obtained, is of comparatively 
little worth in mental development. The enunciation 
of the law is often a mere formula of words which 
conveys no information to the mind. For example, 
many pupils have learned that the attraction of bodies 
is directly as the matter they contained, and inversely 
as the square of the distance, without in the least com- 
prehending the nature or the magnitude of the law con- 
tained in the formula which they have memorized. 

By a series of mathematical steps, it is easy to dem- 
onstrate to a pupil that " in similar figures the homolo- 
gous sides are proportional ; " but to have this proposi- 
tion simply learned would not be of the slightest value 
to the student in geometry. So in astronomy : by care- 
ful study of the facts concerning the solar system, we 
can understand " that the planets in their motions around 
the sun pass over equal spaces in equal times ; " but this 



78 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 

formula, which, is the expression of an important law 
when understood, is simply verbal lumber when not un- 
derstood. 

Corollaries. — From the laws unfolded in the two 
preceding chapters, several corollaries can be drawn, 
which may be taken as principles both in arranging 
courses of study and in devising methods of instruction. 

Sources of Primary Ideas. — The first of the corol- 
laries is, that all primary ideas of the outward world 
must come through the senses. This principle will lead 
to the careful and thorough training of each of the 
senses, and to the cultivation of observation and percep- 
tion. It will base all knowledge on personal experi- 
ence, and avoid the absurd practice of endeavoring to 
make one sense do the work of another, and of present- 
ing ideas beyond the comprehension of the child. 

Training the Senses. — The second corollary is : The 
senses should he trained and made acute hy systematic 
objeclAeaching. 

This principle is derived from the general discussion 
of the subject, and may be inferred directly from the 
last corollary. As our knowledge must needs come 
through the avenues of sense, then it follows that one of 
the most important factors of intelligence is acuteness 
of sense. The senses that most enter into intellectual 
processes are sight and hearing, and in no way can they 
be trained to great sensibility, except by means of sights 
and sounds which appeal directly to them ; and these 
sights and sounds come from objects. Only to a very 
limited extent do our present school-exercises contrib- 
ute to this accurate training of the senses. 



SUBJECTIVE COURSE OF INSTRUCTION. Y9 

Securing Attention. — Third corollary. Attention 
is lest secured hy projper and related object-lessons. 

A child is always more interested in something that 
appeals to his senses than in abstract matters. By adapt- 
ing the lessons to the capacity of the child and by ap- 
pealing to his curiosity, the teacher can always succeed 
in getting attention. In the process of growth the 
mind becomes interested in more abstract matters, and 
the object-lessons may be gradually omitted. 

Cultivating Perceptions. — Fourth corollary. Per- 
ceptive knowledge should he made the basis of primary 
instruction. 

This follows from the fact that the pe rceptivepowers 
are relatively most active in childhood, and hence there 
is a craving for perceptive food. It equally follows from 
the fact that such knowledge is needed for the next 
step in mental growth, and that a failure to improve the 
season and opportunity is fatal to the highest improve- 
ment. 

Exercises in Memory. — Fifth corollary. Memory 
is best cultivated by forcible^ repeated, and related per- 
ceptions and ideas. 

This follows from the general fact that the deepest 
impression is retained the longest, and it shows that the 
faculties are so related that, in the primary stages, that 
course of training which is best for one is best for all. 
It also effectually disposes of the nonsense that rote- 
teaching should be practised because it " strengthens the 
memory." 

Advanced Instruction. — Sixth corollary. Stcbjects 
appealing mainly to the reason and judgment belong to 
the advanced course of instruction. 



80 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 

This principle is so obvious, that there would be no 
necessity of stating it were it not for the fact that it is 
so often violated in practice. Many studies are ad- 
mitted in the primary-school course which have no place 
there, and little children are given tasks which would 
tax the ability of mature minds. The result is, that 
teaching must of necessity become mechanical, because 
the logical formulas are simply understood as sounds, 
and not as ideas. 

Ideas and Words. — Seventh Corollary. Ideas 
should precede \oords. 

This principle follows from the nature of language, 
and the relations of language to thought. While the 
statement is all that is needed to establish its truth, a 
more detailed explanation is necessary to show its appli- 
cation in certain cases. The principle includes the fol- 
lowing minor statements : Objects should precede names ; 
thoughts should precede sentences j hnowledge should 
precede definitions. 

This last proposition, besides being included in the 
general principle, may be directly inferred from the laws 
of mental development, and from the nature of the ob- 
jective course. 

By reversing this process, and giving definitions or 
attempting to give them before the thing defined is well 
understood, several of the fundamental principles of 
teaching are violated, time and effort are wasted, and 
the powers of the mind are permanently injured by a 
most unnatural process. 

The Steps of Instruction. — Eighth corollary. In- 
struction should proceed from the Icnown to the un- 
Jcnown. This truth also shows that the attainment of 



SUBJECTIVE COURSE OF INSTRUCTION. 81 

all knowledge should have a basis in personal experience. 
Bj directing the observing powers to the objects and 
phenomena nearest at hand, the mind becomes possessed 
of real knowledge ; and from this sure basis of home 
knowledge it gradually extends outward toward the un- 
known. Each item of the unknown is converted into 
the known, and each step taken is a firm step in advance. 

This principle includes the following elements : In- 
struction should proceed from the concrete to the ab- 
stract , from the simple to the comjplex ; and from 
facts to princijples. In examining a single object, in- 
struction may go from the general to the particular, but 
with a number of objects it passes from the particular 
to the general. 

Exercise. — The ninth corollary is : Exercise should 
he left to the pupil. The race, in its education, was 
obliged to gain knowledge by experiences which nearly 
as often retarded as promoted direct development. The 
teacher's work should prevent these obstacles, and should 
so direct the pupil in the use of his own powers that the 
greatest progress may be made with the least waste. In 
the exercise of this directive power the teacher must 
avoid the very prevalent fault of telling too much, and 
by so doing of depriving the pupil of an opportunity 
for that mental exercise which is indispensable to his 
highest good. 

To the end that the pupil shall receive the highest 
benefit, the teacher must always carefully select the ma- 
terials to be used, and so arrange the conditions that 
with ordinary observation the pupil will discover the 
desired truth. This end can be defeated either by ren- 
dering the process too obscure for the mental vision of 



82 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 

tlie pupil, or by injudicious haste in verbal explanation. 
When the teacher has so excited the curiosity of the 
pupil that he is led to inquire, the desired end is more 
than half attained. 

Completed Processes,— ll^iiXk). corollary. Each jpro- 
cess of instruction should include full perception^ dis- 
tinct understanding, clear expression, and, where pos- 
sible, the passing of thought into act. 

In much of school- work the processes stop at one or 
the other of these steps, few being carried to the final con- 
summation. Some — as rote-lessons— never reach per- 
ceptions, but are reflected back from this sensorium in au- 
tomatic action ; some — as most of the lessons in primary 
grammar — fail to reach the understanding, but remain 
as vague perceptions. In very few schools is the prac- 
tice of clear expression enforced at all times ; and yet, 
from the necessity of forcible impressions, and from the 
relations of thought to the language, expression is seen 
to be an important factor in both the reception and the 
retention of knowledge, and in clear understanding. 

The last step, the passing of thought into act, is now 
scarcely thought of in any schools except in the kinder- 
gartens and the schools of technology ; still, it will be 
seen that the step is necessary to the full perception and 
distinct understanding of many subjects ; to the physi- 
cal training that coordinates study and work ; and to the 
application of ideas and thought to common affairs and 
duties. 



CHAPTER y. 

OBJECT-TEA CHING. 

General Yiew of the Subject. — Primary teacliing, 
Tintil within a comparatively recent period, has consisted 
chiefly of n^ere rote and routine work. The experi- 
ence of the pupil before he entered school was made of 
little or no real value in the distinctive exercises of the 
school. From the observation of things with which he 
was partially familiar, and in which he took an interest, 
his attention was forcibly turned to the consideration of 
the arbitrary characters which make up the alphabet. 
School-work was considered as not only having no par- 
ticular relation to previous experience, but as something 
directly opposed to it. 

False Philosojphy, — The philosophy somehow ob- 
tained that, the more difficult an exercise was made, 
and the more it differed from ordinary occupations and 
thoughts, the greater was its value as a mental exercise. 
In consequence, the school-lessons were little more than 
memorizing exercises, and the schoolroom became a 
very hateful place to the majority of children. 

Introduction of Object-Lessons. — While these me- 
chanical and unnatural methods were in practice, ob- 



84 PRINCIPLES AND PEACTICE OF TEACHINa 

ject-lessons were introduced. The decided superiority 
of tlie new method over the old, in arousing attention 
and in exciting interest, was soon manifest. The new 
instruction appealed to experience, and excited the ob- 
serving powers to intense activity. It fed the mind 
upon real knowledge, and raised it out of the slough of 
inattention and listless inactivity produced by the old 
process of mere routine. 

Abuse of Ohject-Lessons. — These substantial results 
gained for the new system extensive notoriety, and led 
to an excessive estimation of its value. Object-lessons 
were found excellent in certain grades and under cer- 
tain circumstances, and it was therefore assumed that 
they would prove as good for all grades and under all 
circumstances. Experiments on a large scale were at 
once entered upon, in which object-lessons were made 
to take the place of nearly every other kind of study. 
Since it was found that the primary knowledge of the 
outward world could be best obtained through lessons 
in which the object was present, it was concluded that 
advanced knowledge could best be obtained in the same 
manner. Hence there grew up an undue estimation of 
personal experience, and an unwarranted depreciation 
of the experience of others as found recorded in books. 
The protest against the study of books was carried to 
an extreme, and the new method became nearly as one- 
sided as the old. 

Practical MistaTces. — Mistakes were also frequently 
made in the methods of applying object-teaching. Pu- 
pils were often required to obtain from objects ideas 
with which they were already familiar — making their 
tasks of no more interest than the old routine of the 



OBJECT-TEACHING. 85 

books. Facts were commnnicated by the teacher wliicli 
the pupils could readily discover for themselves. The 
lessons assigned, instead of being in a connected series, 
were often so isolated and fragmentary that no relations 
could be discovered between them, and much of their 
real value, therefore, was lost. 

Reaction against Ohject- Teaching. — These faults of 
over-valuation, and of methods of application, caused 
many teachers to look with distrust upon the whole sys- 
tem of object-teaching. The real results in many cases 
falling so far short of what Was generally expected, led 
to a reaction, in which the whole system of object-les- 
sons was declared a failure. As usual in such cases, 
the truth seems to lie between these extremes. 

JReal Nature of Ohject-Zessons. — In a preceding 
chapter, it has been shown that the first ideas of the 
outward world must come from objects and through the 
senses. This necessary and indeed indispensable pro- 
cess, which occupies the attention during a large share 
of the earlier years of life, is object-teaching. When a 
similar process is introduced into school, and the quah- 
ties of objects become known from the examination of 
the objects themselves, the performance is an object- 
lesson. 

Yalue of Object-Lessons. — By systematizing ob- 
ject-lessons, the observing powers are cultivated and 
trained, qualities of objects become known that were 
unnoticed before, the mind is filled with that knowledge 
which is essential to advanced thought, and a much 
wider basis is given to culture than is usual in school- 
work. 

Qualities of Objects. — The forms of objects and 



86 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 

ideas, in regard to differences of form, are readily un- 
derstood by the examination of objects. For the pur- 
pose of impressing these ideas of form, every school 
should be supplied with a variety of the regular plane 
and solid figures, so that children may become familiar 
with them at a very early period. The different colors, 
with their varieties of hues, tints, and shades, can be best 
known by examining objects which represent these 
colors ; and the only way to train the senses to a nice 
appreciation of color is through this examination, which 
is an object-lesson. The mind is best trained to under- 
stand ideas of position, size, and number in a similar 
manner. 

The Physical Sciences. — The first steps in every sci- 
ence are those which make us acquainted with the facts 
upon which it is based. In all the physical sciences, 
the primary facts are obtained from the observation of 
objects. This is object-teaching. Without this observa- 
tion, and the facts which result from it, correct inference 
is impossible, and science can never advance beyond its 
rudimentary state. 

Illustrative Examples. — In mineralogy and geology, 
which treat of the inorganic world, the first step is to 
carefully examine specimens of the principal rocks which 
compose the crust of the earth. By this examination, 
we become acquainted with the structure and qualities 
of each specimen, and the differences between them. 
This knowledge is at once fundamental and necessary, 
and each exercise in school designed to give a pupil this 
knowledge constitutes an object-lesson. 

In botany and zoology, the same principle holds true. 
In these cases, plants and animals respectively must be 



OBJECT-TEACHING. 87 

subjected to careful examination, and their peculiarities 
of structure and parts noted. This investigation is pre- 
liminary to any clearly-defined knowledge of them. 'No 
speculations, however profound, can be substituted for 
these elementary facts, which can only be obtained 
through the process of object-teaching. Physics, chem- 
istry, and indeed the whole circle of the sciences, will 
afford additional illustrations of this truth. 

''How not to do itP — In endeavoring to teach sci- 
ence, a method has extensively prevailed which admira- 
bly illustrates the process of how not to do it. The 
student is referred to a book, instead of to natural 
objects, to procure his preliminary ideas in regard to 
the subject. He is required to accept authority, in the 
place of making personal investigation. He learns a 
formula of words, which is said to be a law, or rule, 
or definition, when he is utterly ignorant of the facts 
upon which the law, or rule, is based, and of the knowl- 
edge embodied in the definition. The whole perform- 
ance is a substitution of apparent for real knowledge, 
and, whether resulting from ignorance or design, is a 
practical fraud, by which not only are time and labor 
lost, but the mind becomes so deteriorated as to be un- 
able to distinguish between the spurious and the real, 
the false and the true. 

Ideal Objects. — In its enlarged sense, the term object 
means anything to which thought is or maybe directed. 
It is not necessarily confined to things which manifest 
themselves through the senses. The mind may consider 
a physical object, like an apple, a physical quality, like 
color, a mental process, like perception, or a moral 
power, like conscience ; and in each instance, that upon 



88 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 

whidi the mind is employed is an object. Whether the 
object is real, like an apple, or ideal, as a mental power 
or fact, the mind mnst become acquainted with all its 
qualities, characteristics, and relations ; and the process 
of obtaining this knowledge is object-teaching. In this 
sense, object-teaching is the necessary foundation of 
every department of thought. 

Order in ThinMng. — To ascertain laws, to discover 
truth, and to promote human welfare, the mental pro- 
cesses must proceed in some sort of definite order. As 
the materials of thought are primarily derived from the 
observation of external objects, so the order of thought 
springs from the observation of the sequence, causation, 
and dependence of objects and phenomena in the out- 
ward world. These ideas, essential to logic and all con- 
nected thought, are most forcibly presented, and make 
the deepest impression on the mind, by systematic ob- 
ject-lessons, in which relations, as well as qualities, are 
presented. 

The Ideal and the Real. — Descartes, in his philoso- 
phy, shows that the only reality of which we are abso- 
lutely certain is that we thinh. Through our senses we 
observe objects, and we ascribe to these objects real ex- 
istence ; but of this reality we cannot be perfectly sure, 
for our senses may deceive us, and that which we think 
exists may be only an appearance. In the shimmer of 
the light over the parched sands of the desert, the 
thirsty traveler sees water, to all appearance as real as 
the little lakes that lie among the hills of more favored 
regions. It is an appearance, however, that mocks the 
sight ; and the only real thing to the traveler is that he 
thinhs he sees the water. 



OBJECT-TEACHING. 89 

The next position taken by tlie philosopher is that 
the materials and order of thought are furnished by the 
outward world. In our daily experience we observe the 
sequences of ISTature. Night follows day ; the sun unfail- 
ingly appears to pursue his course through the heavens ; 
vernal jlowers succeed winter snows ; all vegetable life 
has an orderly course from germ to maturity, and from 
maturity to decay; animals have their birth, their 
growth, and their decrepitude, and everywhere is or- 
derly sequence. This observation leads the mind to 
ascribe order to every kind of phenomena, and develops 
in it the logical faculty. 

These positions show the ground for the reconcilia- 
tion of the apparently antagonistic ideal and real schools 
of philosophy, and at the same time serve as a guide to 
educational processes. The materials of thought must 
come from the outward world. The more we study 
natural phenomena, and rise to a comprehension of the 
laws that control them, the more thoroughly is our logi- 
cal faculty developed, and the better are we prepared to 
perform the duties of life. 

Interest in Study is greatly increased by well-ar- 
ranged object-lessons. The impression upon the mind, 
made directly through the senses, is much more vivid 
and lasting than when made indirectly through words. 
"When the object is present, an appeal is made to several 
of the senses, and thus deepens the impression desired 
and makes it easier of retention. By this means, also, 
vague and crude impressions are changed into clear and 
definite conceptions, and the field of experience is ex- 
tended on every side. 

Yerification of a Law. — A law which has been dis- 



90 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 

covered inductively may need verification, or, as in the 
subjective course, it may become necessary to apply it 
to a great variety of new circumstances. In either case 
there must result an examination which will reach down 
to the ultimate facts, and this will involve object-lessons. 

Examples. — In observing a common balance, we find 
that the arms are of equal length, and that equal weights 
balance each other. By experiment we find that, if one 
arm is decreased, the weight must be increased to bal- 
ance the weight upon the other side. From these ob- 
servations we may infer that, to produce an equilibrium, 
the product of the weight, multiplied by the length of 
the arm, must be equal. This generalization from the 
observed facts needs additional verification before it can 
be accepted as a law. Will it be true of all lengths of 
the arms ? Is it true of bent as well as straight arms 1 
Is it true of compound as of simple arms ? To answer 
these questions and others of the same sort, and before 
it is safe to assume that the inference made is a general 
law, experiments must be made with objects to verify 
the generalization in every case ; and when the verifica- 
tion has covered the ground of all supposable condi- 
tions, it is accepted as a law. 

Leverrier, noticing the perturbations of Uranus, from 
the established laws of gravitation inferred that its mo- 
tions were affected by a hitherto undiscovered planet ; 
and carrying out his inferences more in detail by the 
aid of mathematics, he inferred the place of the new 
planet at a given time. The astronomical observer 
turned his telescope in the direction indicated, and dis- 
covered E'eptune,'thus verifying the inferences of the 
astronomer. 



OBJECT-TEACHING. 91 

SuMMAEY. — From the foregoing discussion it will be 
seen that object-lessons are of use in the following par- 
ticulars : 

First, thej furnish the best means known for the 
exercise of observation and the training of the percep- 
tive powers. 

Secondly, they constitute the first steps in the un- 
folding of every science ; and especially are they indis- 
pensable in the study of natural history and the physi- 
cal sciences generally. 

Thirdly, they give to the mind the first ideas of 
orderly and methodical thinking. 

Fourthly, they are potent in exciting the mind to 
activity, and in arousing that curiosity and zeal which 
lead to new discovery. 

Fifthly, they furnish the means by which laws may 
be verified and principles may be applied. 

In consequence of these advantages, the time for- 
merly spent in mastering the branches taught in the 
primary schools may be greatly abridged ; and pleasant, 
healthful occupations may be substituted for burden- 
some and barren tasks. 

Cautions to he Ohserved. — In consequence of errors 
committed in the methods of conducting object-lessons, 
the good which would have resulted from their proper 
use has not been realized, and discredit has been thrown 
upon the whole system. These errors have arisen from 
a violation of one or more of the following simple rules 
in regard to their proper use, which rules may be di- 
rectly inferred from the nature of the system itself. 

First : "N"o object-lesson should be given from a book. 
The very name of the exercise would seem to be sufii- 



92 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 

cient to render this rule unnecessary ; but there have 
been teachers so profoundly stupid as to oblige pupils 
to commit to memory the model lessons given in manu- 
als of teaching. 

Secondly : In giving an object-lesson, the teacher 
should have a distinct end in view, and the lesson should 
be considered a failure unless this end is attained. 
Objectless object-lessons are always to be avoided. 

Thirdly : Object-lessons should be given in a sys- 
tematic course, each one conveying its own teaching, and 
bearing some palpable relation to the one that has pre- 
ceded and the one that follows, thus leading the pupil 
to the discovery of the relations, and enabling him to 
associate them in memory. Desultory object-lessons 
are of little worth. 

Fourthly : Object-lessons giving pupils ideas and 
thoughts with which they are already familiar are to be 
avoided. The interest of a lesson depends very much 
upon its novelty ; and if this element is wanting, there 
is very little left to create a permanent impression. 

Fifthly: In giving an object-lesson, the teacher 
should not tell the pupils the things they are to find, 
but he should lead them to observe with accuracy, 
and to express the results of their observation in proper 
language. The teacher's work is rather to guide by 
suggestion, so that the pupil may not go too far astray 
in his efforts to observe. 

The Limits of Object-Teaching can now be readily 
seen. In the objective course they constitute the first 
steps, and in the subjective course they are useful in 
the ultimate analysis necessary to the verification of 
laws and to the appHcation of principles. "When the 



OBJECT-TEACHING. 93 

thought rises from qualities to relations, it is no longer 
necessary to present the object to the mind. Subsen- 
suous knowledge, or that which is below the senses, and 
obtained through them, is derived from objects ; but 
supersensuous knowledge, or that which is above the 
senses, and is the result of reflection, is aided only indi- 
rectly by object-lessons. 

The final result of mental discipline is the attain- 
ment of supersensuous knowledge, and the ability to 
deal with abstract relations and principles. This con- 
summation of education is equally hindered by a neg- 
lect of object-lessons, so that culture rests upon a narrow 
and insufficient basis of fact, and by a continuation of 
exclusive object-lessons too long, so that the mind is kept 
under the domain of the senses, and independent thought 
is rendered nearly impossible. In the latter case, such 
lessons become obstacles rather than aids to the highest 
attainments. 

Additional Caution. — In the study of objects, and 
especially in the branches of natural history, there is a 
tendency to become so much interested in the objects 
themselves, as to neglect the lessons to be derived from 
such objects. The man who yields to this tendency 
degenerates from a possible scientist to a mere collector. 
His work is often as unmeaning as that of the miser in 
hoarding money. The collection which is really valua- 
ble only as a means of culture, to him is the end of cul- 
ture, and he remains in a state of mental vassalage to 
the specimens he has gathered. One good, however, 
may result from his work : The cabinet, once formed, 
may, in wiser hands, be a valuable aid in attaining the 
ends of a true education. 



94: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 

Conclusion. — ^When education is more thoroughly 
understood, both in regard to its aims and its methods, 
it is evident that science will occupy relatively a much 
higher place than now. From the beginning of school- 
life, the facts and elements of science will probably be 
taken as the basis of education. When this general re- 
sult is reached, object-lessons will fall into their proper 
place as indispensable in the first steps of scientific re- 
search. In the pursuit of natural history the larger 
share of the work will consist of series of object-lessons. 
But at the same time, in all probability, the peculiar 
form which these lessons have now generally taken, as 
altogether disconnected from the regular studies of the 
school, will be materially modified or entirely aban- 
doned. "When science is taught in a regular and sys- 
tematic manner, fragments of science will no longer be 
necessary. 



CHAPTER YI. 

RELATIVE VALUE OF THE DIFFERENT BRANCHES 
OF INSTRUCTION. 

The End of Education. — In considering tlie nature 
of education, Herbert Spencer says: "How to live? 
that is the essential question for ns. ITot how to live 
in the mere material sense only, but in the widest sense. 
The general problem which comprehends every special 
problem is the right ruling of conduct in all directions 
and under aU circumstances : In what way to treat the 
body ; in what way to treat the mind ; in what way to 
behave as a citizen; in what way to utilize all those 
sources of happiness which l^ature supplies ; how to use 
aU our faculties to the greatest advantage to ourselves 
and others ; how to live completely. And this being 
the great thing needful to learn, by consequence is the 
great thing which education has to teach. To prepare us 
for complete living, is the function which education has 
to discharge ; and the only rational mode of judging of 
any educational course is to judge in what degree it dis- 
charges such functions." 

Practical Questions. — Admitting that it is desira- 
ble that education, to the extent of its influence, should 
contribute to good conduct and completeness of living. 



96 PRINCirLES AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 

the questions that are forced upon us are : What course 
of study will best accomplish these ends ? and what is 
the order in which the several branches of education 
should be presented ? Ought we to accept the prevail- 
ing customs in these regards — customs inherited from 
remote generations — or should we submit each branch 
and each step in study to the test which this high ideal 
of the nature of educational work imposes ? 

The Old and the New. — It is always well to hold to 
customs and institutions of the past until it is clearly 
Been that a change wall be for human benefit. The 
past imposes authority upon us to this extent, that we 
are to take for granted that any custom had its origin in 
human needs, and has been of use in promoting human 
weKare. This follows from the fact of its being. The 
good of society demands that this authority be obeyed 
and this custom or institution be conserved, until intel- 
ligence has so far advanced as to show that the interests 
of humanity demand a change, either in a readjustment 
of details, or in a reorganization of fundamental princi- 
ples. 

Responsibility for Change. — The burden of proof 
in regard to the desirableness and necessity of a change 
rests entirely upon those demanding it ; and this proof, 
to be perfect, should include two elements : one destruc- 
tive, showing the imperfections and shortcomings of the 
old; and the other constructive, replacing the old by 
something manifestly higher and better. By the con- 
flict between these antagonistic forces, the poise of so- 
ciety is maintained, and a slow but sure advance is made 
toward a higher state of civilization. 

Conditions of Change. — In this perpetually recur- 



RELATIVE VALUE OF INSTRUCTION. 97 

ring controversy two attitudes are obstructive to human 
welfare : the one obstinately clinging to the old social 
forms, which, from changed conditions and circum- 
stances, have outlived their usefulness; and the other 
so eagerly and unintelligently iconoclastic as to wage 
war upon present institutions, before any rational and 
adequate system has been devised to take their place. 
The triumph of the one would arrest human progress, 
of the other would destroy social order. 

The principles which should govern change, true in 
general, are true in regard to education. The past has 
transmitted to the present a course of study and a sys- 
tem of methods ; and in proposing a change, the obliga- 
tion is imposed upon us of showing the errors of present 
practices, and of presenting a system better adapted to 
the needs and circumstances of to-day. 

Ileal and Apjparent Knowledge. — At this point it is 
not intended to attempt anything like a scientific classi- 
fication of human knowledge, but only such a general 
division as will be of use in solving the problem imme- 
diately before us. 

In regard to education, the branches readily divide 
themselves into two classes : those that treat directly of 
the facts and laws of matter and mind, and those which 
are used to aid in the understanding and development 
of the direct branches. These may be regarded respec- 
tively as knowledge, and the tools by which knowledge 
is obtained, or as real knowledge and apparent knowl- 
edge. Some of the studies pursued in school are of a 
double nature, combining both apparent and real knowl- 
edge. 

Relations of Language. — Language is useful for the 
5 



98 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 

expression and preservation of knowledge ; but in its use 
it is simply a tool of knowledge, and not knowledge 
itself. The means by wliicb language is mastered in its 
use, including spelling, reading, and writing ; and lan- 
guage itself, when actively employed in the prosecution 
of other branches of instruction, all occupy this subor- 
dinate position as tools, useful in proportion as they 
serve to disclose the treasures of real knowledge. When 
language, however, is studied in its structure, its history, 
and its relation to the development of man, it becomes 
a branch of real knowledge. 

Belations of Mathematics. — Our first knowledge of 
objects relates to qualities alone ; but before this knowl- 
edge is made exact, so as to merit the name of science, 
quantitative relations must be observed and measured. 
From the observation of these quantitative relations, the 
first ideas of number and definite extension seem to 
have arisen ; and these ideas, abstracted from the objects 
which gave them birth, and reduced to order, form the 
elements of mathematics. The mathematical branches, 
so formed, are indispensable in measuring the quantita- 
tive relations of the concrete sciences, and in this sense 
they are simply tools of knowledge. When mathe- 
matics is studied to discover the laws of relations, which 
it discloses independent of the concrete, it furnishes real 
knowledge, and has a distinct place as such, in a course 
of study. 

Macaulay says : " Bacon, assuming the well-being of 
the race to be the end of knowledge, pronounced that 
mathematical science could claim no higher rank than 
that of an appendage or an auxiliary to other sciences. 
Mathematical science, he says, is the handmaid of nat- 



RELATIVE VALUE OF DESTRUCTION. 99 

ural pliilosophy, and slie ouglit to demean herself as 
such ; and he declares he cannot conceive by what ill- 
chance it has happened that she presumes to claim pre- 
cedence over her mistress." 

Direct and Incidental Acquirement. — Experience 
demonstrates that the use of tools is most quickly learned 
by engaging in real work. The end to be accomplished 
in education is the attainment of real knowledge. To 
this end the main purpose of the pupil should be di- 
rected. In the endeavor to come into possession of this 
real knowledge, the pupil incidentally becomes f amiHar 
with the tools necessary to serve his purpose. The 
branches of real knowledge are mastered by steadily 
fixing the • primary attention upon the thoughts which 
they contain ; while, at the same time, the use of lan- 
guage, both in writing and speaking, and the elements 
of arithmetic and geometry, may be largely acquired 
incidentally through the action of secondary attention. 

Kind of Knowledge Required. — The necessities of 
the mind demand real knowledge to arouse its activities 
and to promote its growth and well-being. Language 
and mathematics can no more satisfy the cravings of 
the mind than the knife and fork and balance for weigh- 
ing meat can satisfy the stomach in its cravings for food. 
However useful these branches and articles may be re- 
spectively in preparing knowledge and food, the one 
can never be knowledge nor the other food. This par- 
allel does not hold in the advanced course of instruc- 
tion, when both language and mathematics are studied 
for intrinsic principles, and in their general relations to 
human progress. 

Branches of Real Knowledge. — The branches which 



100 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 

f urnisli the real knowledge demanded by the mind are 
readily subdivided into two classes : those that treat of 
JN'ature below man, and those that treat of man and his 
works. These are roughly indicated as Science and 
Philosophy, or as the JSTatural Sciences and the Hu- 
manities. Properly speaking, the term science would 
apply to the whole body of knowledge in any depart- 
ment of human investigation which is reduced to sys- 
tematic order; while philosophy would apply to the 
laws of relations, and the causes of phenomena and be- 
ing which science unfolds. 

The Bkanches as Eelated to Development. — 
We have next to consider the value of the different 
branches in regard to the two great ends of education : 
the development of the powers, and practical use. For 
both these purposes real knowledge is demanded, and 
this knowledge should be presented in definite order. 
The purposes of study may be defeated by mistaking 
apparent for real knowledge, by presenting subjects at 
the wrong time, or by failing to recognize the order of 
dependence. "We call attention, first, to the value of 
the branches in their relations to the powers of the 
mind. 

The Natural Sciences as Promoting Development. 
— From objects are obtained the qualities, facts, and 
ideas which are indispensable in the development of the 
perceptive powers. The natural sciences furnish mate- 
rial for this purpose that is fundamental, that is easily 
accessible, that is full of interest, and that is sufficient. 
Without the materials which external E'ature furnishes, 
the perceptive powers cannot be brought into the high- 



RELATIVE VALUE OF INSTRUCTION. 101 

est state of activity, and the mind will lack that primary 
knowledge necessary for the normal operation of the 
higher faculties. 

Tke Discijpline of Memory. — As the office of mem- 
ory is to record and preserve the results of the activities 
of the observing and reflective powers, it follows that 
those branches best calculated to stimulate these powers 
will also be best for the development of memory. We 
have already seen that the highest condition or form of 
memory is that founded upon the laws of association. 
Above all other subjects, the natural sciences tend to 
bring this principle of association into active exercise. 

An idea is iirst gained, and then is associated di- 
rectly with the name or word that expresses it, so that 
the two are henceforth one. These ideas are again as- 
sociated by their likenesses and unlikenesses on succes- 
sively higher planes, until the whole mass of knowledge 
is retained by means of its relations. 

The Humanities as Promoting Development. — The 
humanities present facts and relations more complex 
than the facts and relations derived from the natural 
sciences, and hence come later in order. They serve, 
however, to carry on the development of perception and 
memory to a still more advanced state. 

Discipline of the Reflective Faculties. — The higher 
faculties of the mind, including the imagination, reason, 
and judgment, are brought into most active exercise by 
those very facts which are found most valuable in de- 
veloping perception and memory. From the facts which 
we perceive — their connection and dependence — we 
make inferences and draw conclusions ; and the value 
of these inferences and conclusions will depend upon 



102 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 

the accuracy with which we have observed, and the 
faithfulness with which these observations have been 
recorded. 

General Effect of Real Knowledge. — Study of this 
kind tends to form a habit of acquisitiveness ; a habit of 
collecting all the facts bearing upon given cases; of 
carefully examining and combining these facts or data ; 
of drawing such inferences only as the data will war- 
rant ; and of verifying the inferences by renewed ob- 
servations and experiments. These habits are such as 
inevitably lead to the highest results in every depart- 
ment of investigation, and they are necessary to the ac- 
quisition of truth in every direction. 

The Discipline of Conduct. — In addition to the 
beneficial results to every power of the mind, the habits 
of thought formed by the careful study of real subjects, 
commencing with the natural sciences, directly tend to 
right conduct in life. In every step of progress the pupil 
learns the necessity of ridding his mind of bias, and of 
accepting that which is shown to be true. In this way 
a love of truth is constantly engendered ; and in pro- 
portion to the love for truth will be the love for right, 
and the disposition to act rightly. Carried into the field 
of morals, these methods of thought must result in mak- 
ing truth supreme ; in stimulating action in obedience 
to the dictates of truth ; and in carrying into practice 
the principles of justice which are founded upon truth. 

The Branches as Related to Uses. — Besides its 
office of affording nurture to the mind and of giving it 
discipline, knowledge is indispensable to human well- 
being in every sphere of life. 



RELATIVE VALUE OF INSTRUCTION. 103 

Physical needs must be perpetually supplied, or the 
body dies. Children must have intelligent care, or they 
perish. The functions of industry and citizenship must 
be intelligently performed, or society relapses into a state 
of barbarism. Researches must be constantly made into 
the secrets of ISTature, or civilization will cease to ad- 
vance, and become stagnant. 

Uses of Natural Science. — The natural sciences 
furnish the knowledge which is indispensable for these 
pui-poses, and which is the most fundamental of all. 
The scope of these sciences is broad. They make us 
acquainted : firsts with the inorganic world ; secondly ^ 
with the two grand divisions of the organic world ; and 
thirdly, with the forces which control the action of 
matter in masses and in atoms. They make us ac- 
quainted with our environment, with the relations of 
our surroundings to ourselves, and with all the condi- 
tions necessary to be observed for the preservation of 
our own existence. 

A neglect of the truths which they teach entails 
upon us disease, suffering, and death. An intelligent 
comprehension of these truths enables us to avoid, in a 
large measure, the causes of disease, to diminish suffer- 
ing, and to prevent the prematare termination of life. 
These truths are so fundamental that they affect every 
person during every moment of his existence. ITo other 
sort of intelligence can supersede this, as there can be 
no escape from the evil consequences which ignorance 
in this direction inflicts. 

Natural Science and Industry. — The natural sci- 
ences lie at the foundation of all our industries and 
physical improvements. In the crude industries de- 



104 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 

vised to supply primitive human needs, the physical 
sciences mostly had their origin. Step by step they 
gathered all the facts which the industries supplied, ob- 
served relations, and inferred causes and laws. React- 
ing upon the industries, the sciences apply laws and 
principles to complicated cases, and produce results en- 
tirely unattainable in a more primitive society, but in- 
dispensable to present existence. 

Examples. — A large share of our food is produced 
by agricultural processes. Unless agriculture is intelli- 
gently pursued, a considerable proportion of the present 
population of the earth would perish. But the success- 
ful pursuit of agriculture demands a knowledge of the 
soils, their composition and changes, the principles and 
methods of restoring the vast waste of constant crop- 
ping, which involves a knowledge of mineralogy and 
chemistry. There is also demanded a knowledge of veg- 
•etable growth, which involves botany ; of noxious and 
beneficial insects, and of the useful animals that subsist 
upon vegetation, which involves the various branches 
of zoology. Upon these sciences also depend the suc- 
cessful production of cotton, flax, and silk, and their 
manufacture into cloth and clothing ; the various other 
manufactures necessary to supply human needs ; the 
construction of houses so as to afford protection from 
the elements; the arrangements for artificial heating 
and ventilation ; the construction of domestic utensils, 
and of weapons both offensive and defensive, and the 
creation of all those comforts and conveniences essential 
to the highest enjoyment of life. 

Joined with mathematics, these sciences have ena- 
bled us to construct roads, railroads, bridges, and ca- 



RELATIVE VALUE OF INSTRUCTION. 105 

nals ; to tunnel mountains ; to furnish large cities with 
light, and never-failing supplies of water ; to drain 
marshes and construct sewers ; and, in a large measure, 
to comprehend sanitary laws, and provide the appliances 
necessary to secure perfect obedience to these laws. 

Ubiquity of the Elements of Natural Science. — 
The facts of JSTature which form the elements of the 
natural sciences are everywhere around us, and are forc- 
ing themselves upon our notice. They come thronging 
in through the avenues of sense on every side, demand- 
ing recognition. They will be recognized, and will per- 
form their beneficent work, unless the attention is reso- 
lutely and systematically turned away from them and 
engrossed in other thoughts. This can only happen 
under a vicious system of education, where prominence 
is given to apparent rather than to real knowledge. 
Should we succeed, however, in shutting out the ideas 
which are so eager to enter, we are made to suffer in 
actual pain, in the thwarting of desires, or in the loss 
of privileges or power. 

The elements of the natural sciences are so closely 
connected with physical well-being that they more pow- 
erfully affect the mind, and hence are adapted to awa- 
ken a deeper interest than any other branches of study. 
This interest renders acquisition easier, and gives to the 
mind a greater store of knowledge with the same de- 
gree of effort. 

Uses of the Humanities. — The humanities, treating 
of man and his work, come in to carry forward the 
work of education toward completion. These branches 
include the division of man into races ; the distribution 
of races upon the earth ; the relation of man to his en- 



106 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 

vironment ; the acliievements of man in subduing ]^a- 
ture, and in controlling natural forces ; and the changes 
which man has wrought upon the earth. They also in- 
clude an examination of the nature and operations of 
mind, and the products of mind in their threefold 
manifestation — intellectual, moral, and aesthetic. 

Conditions of their Successful Use. — The humani- 
ties, however, to be of use in investigations and indus- 
trial pursuits or business operations, must present real 
knowledge, and not merely serve as tools for getting 
real knowledge. In respect to methods of study, they 
must also conform to the methods pursued in natural 
history and in other objective studies, where facts are 
first acquired and the process is continued through the 
regular chain of deductive operations until the law is 
discovered. 

To a thorough understanding of the humanities, a 
knowledge of the facts and laws of the material world 
are indispensable. Thought and action everywhere are 
found to be so dependent upon outward circumstances 
and considerations that they cannot be understood until 
the forces that control them are first comprehended. 
For example, the first steps in civilization were ren- 
dered possible only in a region where the soil is fertile, 
the climate moderate, and where mountains or other 
natural barriers afford protection and isolation. The 
migration of races and the march of armies, which have 
been instrumental in spreading civilization, have been 
determined by the direction of mountain ranges, and 
the position of other natural obstacles. 

The character of every nation has been, to a con- 
siderable extent, determined by the circumstances which 



RELATIVE VALUE OP INSTRUCTION. 107 

have surrounded it, and these circumstances in turn 
have largely depended upon material conditions. The 
events of history can never be understood unless the 
physical conditions of the regions where they transpire 
are first well understood. Even the literature and art 
of a people are found to be fashioned very much by 
the physical surroundings amid which they had their 
origin. 

Special Studies. — The special studies ranked among 
the humanities, which are of the greatest importance in 
the work of education, are those which consider man 
from the individual outward, or mental and moral phi- 
losophy : man as a member of society, or sociology ; 
and man in his past, or history. Each of these contrib- 
utes real knowledge to his development ; the truths of 
each are necessary to his highest welfare ; and from each 
laws are derived, essential as a guide to individual con- 
duct, and to the general progress of the race. 

Importance of History. — As the branches under 
the first two of these general divisions have received 
attention elsewhere, history alone remains to be noticed 
in its threefold aspect of chronology, philology, and 
archaeology. 

Chronology. — The study of chronology makes us ac- 
quainted with the achievements of the nations and races 
which at present inhabit the earth, and of those that 
have passed away, as far as recorded. Its field is his- 
tory as preserved in literature and tradition. It shows 
the change of man from a low mental and moral state 
to his present condition, not by an uninterrupted ad- 
vance, but by a complicated series of progressions and 



108 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 

retrogressions, difficult to trace and analyze. With tite 
lapse of sufficient time, however, the direction of the 
change is manifest, and is seen to be growth. 

The facts which chronology furnishes, supplemented 
by those derived from the other sciences which bear 
upon the subject, bring into light the sequences of 
events, and show that national triumphs and disasters 
have their roots in moral causes. In this chronological 
survey, we can see enough of the past of man to know 
what elements enter into human affairs, and we are able 
to distinguish the permanent from the transient, and to 
order both individual and national lives progressively 
more in accordance with the laws of the universe. 

Philology. — ^When recorded history fails, investiga- 
tion extends to a more distant past by means of philol- 
ogy. In the direction of historic research the pursuit 
of language receives its richest rewards. Studied not 
for the purpose of getting additional means of express- 
ing knowledge, but for obtaining knowledge itself, it 
furnishes some of the most important links in the chain 
of evidence relating to the great problems of man's 
origin, unity, and destiny. In the structure of words 
are recorded the first dim perceptions of mind, looking 
out upon the unknown, and the successive steps tow- 
ard an intelligent comprehension of the facts, forces^ 
and relations of the universe. These words need to be 
studied with as minute a care as the specimens of nat- 
ural history ; both the living words and the fossil re- 
mains of human speech as appearing in the form of ob- 
solete words and dead languages. The study of these 
specimens, living and dead, equally repay the investi- 
gator in furnishing material for broader generalizations, 



RELATIVE VALUE OF INSTRUCTION. 109 

and in leading to a better understanding of tlie laws 
which control mind and its products. 

ArchcBologT/.—The study of the monuments, uten- 
sils, and weapons made hj man carries the mind back 
still farther into antiquity, back beyond chronology^ 
beyond philology, and beyond every evidence of man's 
existence, except that which is afforded by the most 
imperishable materials upon w^hich the labor of man 
has been spent. From our homes and from mod- 
ern cities, furnished with all the materials of present 
civilization, we travel over the familiar ground of chro- 
nology, finding cities, and temples, and pyramids ; and 
beneath the crumbling ruins of great cities described in 
ancient lore, we find the ruins of other cities of which 
even tradition is silent. Still going back, step by step, 
we find the evidences of human art continually becom- 
ing less, until the rude arrow-head of the primitive 
man terminates investigation by archaeological means, 
and marks the disappearance of any intelligence suffi- 
cient to leave an enduring evidence of human existence. 

What is Gained. — The study of these various phases 
of history puts man in possession of the past of human- 
ity, back to the dawn of intelligence, and shows what 
elements enter into his individual being, and into the 
civilization of the race. This knowledge not only grati- 
fies the natural curiosity in regard to the past, but is a 
necessity in putting man in the complete possession of 
his powers, and in enabling him to comprehend the 
tendency of existence, so as to be able to adjust himself 
to its perpetually varying conditions. 

This study, so varied and profound, belongs to the 
advanced course of instruction, and is available only 



110 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 

when a broad foundation of physical knowledge lias been 
laid in tlie primary conrse. It supplements the physical 
sciences, and furnishes a field for thought and investiga- 
tion full of the promise of fruit. 

FoKEiGN" Languages. — The study of a foreign lan- 
guage may be pursued for either one of three legitimate 
purposes : The possession of additional means for acquir- 
ing and expressing knowledge ; the knowledge found in 
the literature of the language ; and the help which the 
language gives to philological research. As mental de- 
velopment is incident to all study pursued by proper 
methods, its consideration as the special object of hn- 
guistic study is not entertained. 

Elementary Study. — All elementary study of a for- 
eign language must be for the purpose of becoming ac- 
quainted with its structure and idioms, and with the 
meaning of its words. It furnishes the mind with no 
real knowledge, but simply puts it in possession of the 
implements by which knowledge may be acquired. As 
a means, this study is valuable ; as an end, comparatively 
valueless. Carried to the point of mastery, it furnishes 
means of communication which may be used for valu- 
able purposes; stopping short of this point, the time 
spent in its pursuit would bear much better fruit if 
given to the study of the vernacular, perfecting the use 
of one tongue, rather than obtaining a smattering of 
many. 

Foreign Literature. — The study of a foreign lan- 
guage, when pursued for the purpose of gaining an ac- 
quaintance with the literature which the language con- 
tains, produces fruit in the form of development and 



RELATIVE VALUE OF INSTRUCTION. m 

culture. Such study belongs to the advanced course. 
To a critical appreciation of the finest literary produc- 
tions of a people, an acquaintance with the language is 
doubtless a necessity ; but science and philosophy can be 
obtained equally well from translations, and even the 
purely literary works can be better appreciated tlirough 
a good translation, than by their study in the original, 
when their language is imperfectly mastered. In home 
dress, English scholars may come in possession of the 
best thought of the world wherever it may originate. 
In poetry, and in the prose where form is an essential 
element, there will be loss in translation ; but this loss 
may be compensated wholly, or in part, by the study of 
the English masters in these departments of literature. 
Comparative Philology. — Linguistic study, pursued 
for the purpose of throwing light upon human history, 
and of discovering the laws and evolution of language 
itself, belongs to the higher and professional courses of 
instruction. It does not constitute the basis of culture, 
but rather it completes the superstructure in one direc- 
tion. 

The Ancient Languages. — It is not designed here 
to enter into the controversies that have risen respecting 
the relative advantages of the ancient languages on the 
one hand, and of mathematics and the natural sciences 
on the other ; but the scope of the discussion demands 
that the claims of the former, as the exclusive basis of 
culture, should receive examination. 

Advantages Claimed. — The advantages claimed for 
the study of the Latin and Greek languages are : That 
there can be no complete or broad learning except through 



112 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 

these brandies, which have been honored by the use of 
centuries in all the great schools of instruction, and have 
constituted a prominent agency in the culture of edu- 
cated men for many generations ; that a broad culture 
must embrace an acquaintance with the life and thought 
of antiquity ; that, by requiring patient and prolonged 
attention, they confer a severe mental discipline ; that 
the act of translating into the vernacular cultivates dis- 
crimination in the use of language ; that a familiar ac- 
quaintance with the ancient classics is necessary to an 
exact knowledge of all modern languages. 

Difficulties Encountered. — Admitting that a thor- 
ough acquaintance with the Greek and Latin languages 
and literature may be necessary to the widest learning, 
it may be objected, to their general use as branches of 
elementary study, that it is utterly impracticable in our 
schools to carry the study of these languages to such a 
point of thoroughness as will at all realize the results 
aimed at. 

A mere smattering of a language will not bestow 
the ability to enter into an acquaintance with its litera- 
ture. This objection would seem to offset all the ad- 
vantages named except two : the mental discipline re- 
sulting from the close attention required in the study 
of these languages, and the power of discrimination 
cultivated by the work of translation. 

Mental Discvpline. — It must be admitted that the 
responsibility rests upon the true educator of selecting 
such studies for pupils as will give the highest develop- 
ment with the least possible waste. The question is 
not whether the classic languages are capable of con- 
ferring upon the student certain beneficial results, but 



RELATIVE VALUE OF INSTRUCTION. II3 

whether these results are necessary, and whether these 
languages will produce them more economically than 
certain other branches. 

So far as mental discipline is concerned, including 
the habits of observation, of quick and accurate percep- 
tion, of severe attention, of close and patient reasoning, 
it may be doubted whether any branches are capable 
of more effective service than the natural sciences and 
mathematics. And in regard to the cultivation of spon- 
taneous mental energy, and a habit of original discovery, 
it will scarcely be denied that the natural sciences stand 
supreme. 

In acquiring the power of nice discrimination in the 
use of language, there can be no doubt that the pupil 
will be benefited by a careful drill in translating a for- 
eign language into his own tongue. But the question 
still remains, whether this result may not be accom- 
plished by the study of modern languages ; and whether 
a sufficient mastery of language may not be obtained 
for understanding and expressing all the thoughts 
ever born into the world, and even for giving the 
nicest and most delicate shades of meaning, by the 
study of our own vernacular. The language of Shake- 
speare, Milton, and Blackstone has powers and capaci- 
ties which render it inferior to no tongue ever spoken 
by man. 

Schiller's Opinion. — Apropos to the value of trans- 
lating for the purpose of gaining power in the ver- 
nacular, the German poet Schiller said to a friend, 
who asked him whether he read Shakespeare in Eng- 
lish : " My business in life is to write German ; and I 
am convinced that a person cannot read much in a for- 



11^ PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 

eign language without losing that delicate tact in the 
perception of the power of words which is essential 
to good writing." 

SuMMAEY IN ErEGAKD TO LANGUAGE. — From the fore- 
going discussion in regard to language we derive con- 
clusions as follows : 

First: That language in its use, to a wide extent, 
is acquired incidentally, and that this acquisition com- 
mences at an early period of infancy, and continues 
through life. 

Second : That the study of language directly, whether 
in the form of grammar or of comparative philology, 
involves principles closely allied to mental philoso- 
phy, and hence belongs to the advanced course of 
instruction. 

Third : That the study of the vernacular leads most 
directly to the mastery of language, and hence should 
be made the basis of all linguistic study. 

Fourth : That the pursuit of the classic languages 
belongs to the professional rather than to the general 
course, and that classic study possesses no just claims to 
be considered the basis of modern education, or the ex- 
clusive means for the attainment of culture. 

Fifth: That to reverse the process here pointed 
out, and to make the study of language the basis of 
instruction, is to violate the laws of mental growth, 
to fill the mind with words instead of ideas, and to 
form habits of expending so much force in verbal 
criticism as to overlook the weightier matter of the 
character and truth of the statement which the lan- 
guage contains. 



RELATIVE VALUE OF INSTRUCTION. II5 

General Summary. — The conclusions in regard to 
the relative value of the different branches of instruc- 
tion may be briefly stated as follows : 

First : That real knowledge is demanded for both 
mental development and practical use ; that the branches 
most valuable for mental development are those that 
enter most extensively into the affairs of life ; that the 
order to be pursued in promoting the normal growth of 
the mind exactly conforms to the order of the presenta- 
tion of the sciences f oimded upon dependence ; and that 
the methods found to be most efficacious in arousing 
the faculties are the best calculated to unfold the truths 
of science. 

Second: That the kind of knowledge best adapted 
to the promotion of the two great ends of education is 
that which lies nearest to us, which foices itself most 
strongly upon our notice, and which excites the great- 
est interest in the mind when attention has been directed 
to it. From that which is nearest and can be most 
easily known, the mind passes outward to the more re- 
mote, abstract, and unknown. 

Third: That in the true course of study the natural 
sciences will serve as a basis ; that language for ex- 
pression will accompany every step in acquisition ; that 
the mathematics will be coordinated with the concrete 
sciences ; that the humanities will come in to complete 
the course ; and that language as a science will be rele- 
gated to the advanced course. 



CHAPTER yil. 

PESTALOZZI. 

Schools of the Olden Time. — Up to the time of the 
Reformation the common people of Europe were in a 
state of abject ignorance in regard to the elements gener- 
ally considered as belonging to education. Reading and 
writing were accomplishments monopolized by the higher 
classes, and by no means nniyersal even among them. 
The higher education was in the control of the priest- 
hood, and was administered almost exclusively in the 
interest of the Church. Common schools, in which the 
whole body of the people had a rightful participation, 
were not only unknown, but an idea so revolutionary to 
the existing order of society had scarcely ever entered 
the consciousness of the most advanced thinkers. 

Effect of Printing upon Education. — The invention 
of printing, and the circumstances that followed the great 
protest against authority, resulted in a wide demand for 
schools in which reading should be taught. By slow 
degrees such schools were established, and in the most 
enlightened parts of Europe they became quite common. 

Care of the Schools. — These schools naturally fell 
into the care of the priesthood, in both Catholic and 



PESTALOZZI. 117 

Protestant countries, in part from the force of habit, 
and in part because the priests constituted the only class 
who had sufficient education to manage them. The 
course of instruction in these schools embraced the al- 
phabet, the elements of reading, the catechism, the 
memorizing of a certain number of maxims and rules, 
and sometimes writing. The whole of this instruction 
was of the most mechanical kind, and no attempt was 
made to develop the understanding of the pupil, or to 
give him that knowledge which would be of practical 
use in his future work. 

Teachers Employed. — The teachers of these schools, 
apart from the priests, were usually selected not on ac- 
count of their fitness for teaching, but because they 
were fit for nothing else. Soldiers who had lost a limb 
in battle, persons disabled by accident, and superannu- 
ated old men and women who were likely to become a 
public burden as paupers, were often chosen for teachers. 
In this manner ignorance came to the aid of routine, 
and reduced the value of instruction to its minimum. 

Yalue of Learning to Head. — To a peasantry in a 
state of vassalage, who have no interest in the soil they 
till, whose labor is at the mercy of others, and who in 
consequence often suffer for the common necessaries of 
life, the mere ability to read is the veriest mockery. 
The training of the schools afforded no such intelligence 
as leads to the improvement of one's condition ; and the 
ability to understand the printed page was of little value 
where there were no books to read and no leisure to 
spend in reading. Such an acquisition is poor comfort 
to a person destitute of clothing, and suffering from 
hunger. 



118 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICS OF TEACHING. 

Schools for tlie common people, wherever established 
in Em-ope, were substantially in the condition described, 
until abont the commencement of the present century. 
The ruling classes seemed to regard the common people 
as proper materials for soldiers to extend conquests, or for 
subjects to be taxed ; and the last idea that could enter 
their minds was that these people were human beings, 
with all the rights and inborn capacities of other human 
beings, and that, therefore, they were entitled to the 
best education which the age could give. 

Ideal Schools. — Rousseau, the French philosopher, in 
some of his speculations concerning man and his destiny, 
gave an outline of an ideal state of society, where in- 
telligence and justice should take the place of ignorance 
and selfishness. Prominent among the philanthropic 
schemes of this dreamy j)hilosopher was a system of 
universal education, by which every one could obtain 
that knowledge which would be of most worth to him 
in bettering his own condition, and in contributing to 
the general weKare of society. 

Pestalozzi's Career. — Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi 
was then a young man, residing in his native city 
Ziirich, in Switzerland. His attention was attracted to 
these writings, and they produced a deep impression 
upon his mind. He had become painfully aware of 
the ignorance and degradation of the common people of 
his native country, and the speculations of Eousseau 
seemed to give him the key to a method by which their 
condition might be improved. The circumstances of 
his own life had made him extremely sensitive to the 
injustice and absurdity of the divisions of society into 



PESTALOZZI. 119 

castes, whicli gave to some special privileges, and with- 
iield these same privileges from others. The impelling 
force that influenced his subsequent action was more a 
genuine hatred of tyranny and a belief in democracy 
than any consideration concerning the nature and method 
of education. 

PJiilanthropiQ Views. — His ideas of education were 
forced upon him in his endeavors to raise the condition 
of the common people, and these ideas came not in the 
shape of a perfected theory, but rather as the result of 
experiments born of the necessities and conditions of 
the hour. His special work grew out of philanthropy 
rather than philosophy ; but on this account, so far as it 
conforms to philosophic principle, it is all the more 
valuable. 

The Ideal reduced to Practice. — The educational 
problem that presented itself to the mind of Pestalozzi 
was, whether the ideal of Rousseau might not be made 
real. After deliberating upon the question, he resolved 
to make the experiment. He first ventured to write 
and publish short essays upon the subject. Afterward, 
he embodied his views upon home education in a story 
entitled " Leonard and Gertrude." This book created 
a great sensation throughout Switzerland and Germany, 
and the auj;hor at once found himself famous as a liter- 
ary man. 

Experiments at Neuhof. — ^He also endeavored to 
carry his theories of education into practice by estab- 
lishing a school at his farm at Keuhof. At this school 
he received juvenile delinquents from the city of Berne, 
where he undertook the business of endeavoring to 
eradicate their vicious propensities by a course of in- 



120 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 

struction and moral training. This experiment was tlie 
forerunner of the modern reform-school, now constitut- 
ing a part of the educational system in nearly all civil- 
ized countries. 

The scheme proved a failure, partly from his want 
of organizing and administrative ability, partly from 
pecuniary mismanagement, and partly from his want of 
experience as a teacher. The failure of his experiment 
left him nearly bankrupt ; and at the age of fifty-three 
he found himself without profession, without money, 
and without employment. Judged by the ordinary 
standards of success, his hf e so far was a failure. 

Condition of the Country. — During the wars that 
followed the French Revolution, Switzerland was the 
battle-field of the powerful surrounding nations. With 
little or no interest in the results of the conflicts, she 
was made to suffer more than either of the contending 
parties. Her harvests were plundered, her houses in- 
vaded, and, in some of the cantons, the larger part of 
the male population was carried away by the invaders. 
"Women and children were left with no means of sus- 
tenance, and without shelter for their heads. 

School at Stanz.—ln 1798, the little canton of Nid- 
walden, at the southern extremity of Lake Luzerne, in- 
curred the enmity of the French, and, in consequence, 
was invaded by a French army ; the whole country was 
made desolate, and every village except the little ham- 
let of Stanz was burned. The sufferings of the house- 
less women and children were very great, and measures 
of relief were immediately instituted in the more pros- 
perous cantons. Here was an opportunity for Pestalozzi, 
who at once volunteered to go to Stanz and take charge 



PESTALOZZI. 121 

of the cMldren who might be collected there — the phil- 
anthropic people of Berne furnishing the means neces- 
sary for their subsistence. 

Condition of the School. — ^An old deserted convent 
was taken for the use of the school, and here Pestalozzi 
found one hundred homeless and almost naked children 
waiting his arrival. Straightway, with the means at his 
command, he prepared a kitchen, dining-room, and 
schoolroom. A large upper room was changed into a 
dormitory, where pupils and teachers slept together. 
With no means to buy books or apparatus of any kind, 
and in a room bare of everything save the rough benches, 
Pestalozzi commenced his work as a teacher. IS^ecessity, 
with him, literally became the mother of invention. 
For want of books, the lessons were necessarily oral; 
and to gratify the awakened curiosity of the children, 
recourse was had to everything that could excite an in- 
terest or afford instruction. 

Things and Representatives. — ^During his first ex- 
perience in teaching, it is related of Pestalozzi that, 
among other agencies, he made extensive use of pictures. 
One day he had occasion to refer to a ladder, but the 
picture required for illustration was mislaid, and could 
not be found. Seeing the perplexity of the teacher, 
one of the boys suggested that there was a ladder near 
the door which might be used in place of the picture. 
From this suggestion the idea for the first time dawned 
upon the mind of Pestalozzi that the things themselves 
were better than any representatives of them — when lo ! 
object-teaching was born into the world. 

Intellectual Success. — The success of the school at 
Stanz was so marked as to excite attention and admira- 
6 



122 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 

tion. It was found that the children were coming rap- 
idly to understand things, and that the attention which 
they bestowed npon objects accelerated rather than re- 
tarded their progress in reading and writing. They 
were also constantly interested in their work ; and study, 
which before had been an onerous task, was transformed 
into a delightful recreation. 

Moral Success. — The healthy intellectual stimulus 
afforded, together with the peculiar circumstances and 
conditions of the school, gave a decided impetus, also, 
to moral instruction ; and Pestalozzi found it a compara- 
tively easy task to inculcate those principles of justice 
and benevolence which he considered the final outcome 
of all true education. It is related that when Altdorf, 
a village in a neighboring canton, was consumed by 
fire, and a large number of children were rendered 
houseless, Pestalozzi laid the case before the school, 
when the pupils, with one voice, requested him to take 
charge of these children also, notwithstanding the fact 
that, by so doing, they themselves would be obliged to 
put up with insufiicient rations and limited accommo- 
dations. 

School at Biirgdorf. — About one year after the 
establishment of the school at Stanz, the canton was re- 
occupied by the French army, and the school was turned 
out, and consequently broken up, to make room for the 
soldiers. Immediately Pestalozzi applied for employ- 
ment as a teacher, and was sent to Burgdorf as an as- 
sistant in a school conducted upon the old routine sys- 
tem.. His measures, however, were so revolutionary, that 
the principal of the school straightway took measures 
to have him dismissed. He next took a position in one 



PESTALOZZI. 123 

of tlie lowest of tlie primary schools, at that time con- 
ducted by an old dame. Here his success was so strik- 
ing as to command the attention of the authorities, and, 
as a result, secured for him a place better fitted to his 
powers. In connection with able associates, he next 
opened a school in the deserted castle at Burgdorf, when, 
for the first time, he had an opportunity for a thorough 
test of his educational theories. This school continued 
for two years, and obtained great celebrity, both in 
Switzerland and Germany. 

School at Yverdon. — Owing to political changes, 
however, he was obliged to give up his castle, and for a 
time the school was suspended. In 1803 it was rees- 
tablished at Yverdon, on Lake IS^eufchatel, where it 
continued twenty-two years, closing in 1825, two years 
before the death of its founder. The novelty of the 
teaching at Burgdorf and Yverdon soon attracted the 
attention of the principal educators of Switzerland, and 
the school became more famous than any other school 
of its time. Special students, appointed by different 
governments, and volunteers from every country in Eu- 
rope, flocked to Yverdon to become acquainted with the 
new methods ; and by these students the principles of 
Pestalozzi were carried back to their respective coun- 
tries, and extensively put into practice. These princi- 
ples at once obtained a stronger foothold in Germany 
than elsewhere ; but, to a greater or less extent, they 
modified the educational systems of the whole civilized 
world. 

Pestalozzian" PumciPLES. — As Pestalozzi has left 
no written code or authoritative resume of his prin- 



124: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 

eiples, we must look for tliem in the spirit of his work, 
and in such fragmentary statements as we find scattered 
throughout his writings. 

Order in Mental Growth. — The first and most fun- 
damental principle in all his work is, that the mental 
powers are unfolded in definite order, and that true in- 
struction must be that which is intelligently adapted to 
each stage of mental growth, and directly tends to pro- 
mote the next step of development. This principle, 
almost utterly ignored up to the time of Pestalozzi, is 
now generally admitted by educators, and is progres- 
sively becoming more and more the corner-stone of edu- 
cation. 

Home-Education. — Among the means necessary for 
elevating the common people in intelligence and mo- 
rality, one of the first that forced itself upon the atten- 
tion of Pestalozzi was the importance and necessity of 
a thorough home-education. Indeed, in the develop- 
ment of his own ideas of education, this feature took 
precedence of all others. From actual observation, he 
saw, so frequently and so generally, that children at 
home were not only neglected in regard to their phys- 
ical and moral needs, but that their naturally right in- 
•stincts were perverted, and their whole nature demoral- 
ized, by bad examples and improper training, that he 
concluded that aU effectual efforts at reform must begin 
at home. 

The Influence of Mothers. — In aU his earlier writ- 
ings, his aim seemed to be to impress upon mothers the 
idea that they alone had power, through their influence 
at home, to work the needed reforms in society. He 
showed how susceptible children at an early age are to 



PESTALOZZI. 125 

good influences, and in wliat manner tliese influences 
could be exercised to the best advantage. The mother 
has ahnost unlimited power over the child for the first 
few years of its existence, during which period habits 
are formed which go far to control action through life. 
It is all-important that, in this susceptible and formative 
period, all selfish propensities should be suppressed, and 
all good impulses stimulated. Indeed, neglect or mis- 
direction at this period can never be compensated by 
subsequent education. Efforts to change the conduct 
of adults, who have grown up in ignorance and with 
slovenly and vicious habits, are usually entirely wasted, 
or the results produced are very insignificant when com- 
pared with the efforts put forth. 

Mistakes in Application. — ^While this philosophy in 
regard to the importance of home-education and the in- 
fluence of mothers was correct, Pestalozzi soon found 
that he had made a mistake in its application. True 
home-education can only be given by mothers who have 
themselves been truly educated. While the motherly 
instinct may be relied upon as sufficient to supply the 
child with the most common of the physical necessities, 
in all mental and moral work the mother must be guided 
by an enlarged intelHgence. The love for the child 
will supply the motive, but this love must be supple- 
mented by a knowledge of what constitutes the highest 
welfare of the child, and what means are best adapted 
to secure this welfare. To expect such results from 
mothers who themselves are neglected and misdirected 
at home, and who have no opportunity to correct their 
early impressions by education, would be absurd. " Do 
men gather grapes of thorns, or figs of thistles ? " 



126 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 

Education of Mothers. — Tlie third great principle 
which, may be considered as Pestalozzian is, that moth- 
ers should be educated. In consequence of the momen- 
tous results involved, this education should be as ex- 
tended and complete as possible. Since the work of the 
mother is to shape the future destiny of the child, the 
whole well-being of society depends upon the intelli- 
gence with which this work is executed. The work in- 
volves principles of the most complex character pertain- 
ing to mental phenomena and to human relations ; and 
the education of the mother must of necessity be incom- 
plete unless it includes the facts upon which these prin- 
ciples rest. This view of the nature of woman's work, 
and of the preparatory culture necessary to the highest 
performance of that work, sets aside at once and forever 
all those contracted views of woman's sphere and edu- 
cation which are so frequently urged with an air of 
great profundity and wisdom. 

Study of Children. — The next important principle 
of Pestalozzi is, that the teacher should make the child 
the subject of profound and careful study. "While the 
general principles of mental philosophy derived from 
the aggregate study of mind will serve as a guide to 
general courses of instruction, a special study of the 
peculiarities of each child is necessary as a guide to the 
intelligent adaptation of general means to particular 
cases. The important changes which are now going on 
in regard to primary instruction may be directly traced 
to the application of this principle. 

Training of Imleciles. — In no other department of 
instruction is the necessity of the study of each individ- 
ual so apparent as in the education of imbeciles. The 



PESTALOZZI. 127 

minds of these unfortunates differ from those of ordi- 
nary children chiefly in being more sluggish in action. 
All the ordinary appliances of education fail to arouse 
the dormant powers into activity. By a careful series 
of experiments, and by patient investigation v^hich has 
continued through years, it has been found that the 
agencies necessary to be used in these cases differ from 
ordinary instruction, principally in the length of each 
step, and in the number of times each idea must be re- 
peated. The results of these experiments have shown 
that imbeciles usually are susceptible of improvement ; 
and they have also determined, with a degree of accu- 
racy before unknown, the successive steps necessary in 
all primary instruction. 

Bases of JExperience. — The fifth principle is, that 
all school-work should be founded upon the actual expe- 
rience of the child. To this end the exercises of the 
schoolroom should conform as much as possible to mat- 
ters which interest the child out of school, and all in- 
struction given should start from that which is already 
possessed. Much of the earliest instruction of the school 
will be to enlarge this experience by making vague notions 
more definite, and by showing relations between things 
which were before undiscovered. These exercises are 
also necessary to a thorough understanding of the sub- 
ject — a result which Pestalozzi considered of cardinal 
importance. 

Object-Teaching. — In all the works of the great re- 
former there is nothing more distinctly shown than that 
the systematic study of things should precede that of 
books. In popular estimation this is the most distinctive 
Pestalozzian principle of all. That the observing powers 



128 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 

should be trained to perceive by exercise upon real ob- 
jects, and that the office of books is to supplement the 
knowledge gained by personal experience, may be gath- 
ered not only from the writings of this author, but from 
the manner in which the schools at Burgdorf and Yver- 
don were conducted, and from the exercises of all the 
schools which have since been founded upon these 
models. 

In another chapter we have shown the necessity of 
object-teaching, and the place such teaching should oc- 
cupy in a school course. 

Practical Ohjections. — ^Pestalozzi and his followers 
have been censured for having made too much of' per- 
sonal experience, and of having given too much promi- 
nence to object-teaching. There is, probably, an ele- 
ment of truth in this criticism, but the mistake was al- 
most a necessary consequence of the circumstances of 
the case, and was but the exaggeration of a step in the 
right direction. From the system which ignored expe- 
rience and made little or no account of understanding 
the subject, the reaction in favor of rational methods 
was violent. The rote-system was exploded ; and as this 
system was founded upon books exclusively, it was but 
natural that the books should have been regarded as part 
of the discarded system, and that they should have been 
undervalued in the revision of the course of instruction 
which followed. To personal experience, which is in- 
dispensable as forming the basis of all knowledge, was 
assigned too high a place, and too little importance was 
attached to the knowledge which comes from the expe- 
rience of others. These mistakes, incidental to all im- 
provements in educational processes, are corrected by 



PESTALOZZI. 129 

larger experiences, while the good resulting from the 
change remains as a permanent acquisition to the means 
of promoting human welfare. 

Conduct and Character. — One of the ideas of edu- 
cation Pestalozzi made most prominent was, that all ex- 
ercises should tend to promote good conduct on the part 
of the pupil, and that education was a failure unless it 
culminated in the formation of habits of good conduct. 
Intelligence he deemed valuable chiefly as it promoted 
morality. In his writings and practice he constantly 
enforced these ideas. The manner of conducting school 
exercises so as to lead to good conduct — a method directly 
resulting from Pestalozzi's principles — will be considered 
in the chapter upon Moral Teaching. 

Growth of the System. — ^Many of the experiments 
instituted by Pestalozzi and his disciples, to put these 
principles in practice, have proved failures. The whole 
system is so exactly opposite to the old, in its aim and 
methods, that it has been difficult at once to determine 
the means that shall best express and exemplify the new 
ideas. Teachers educated under the old methods find 
it exceedingly hard to overcome their former habits ; and 
although they may be convinced in theory, their practice 
changes slowly. But by almost imperceptible degrees 
the new ideas obtain a foothold and are consolidated into 
system, resulting finally in a complete revolution, which 
will substitute intelligent investigation for mechanical 
routine in every field of human thought and endeavor. 



CHAPTEE YIII. 

FROEBEL AND THE KINDERGARTEN. 

Fkuit of Pestalozzi's Peinciples. — The impulse 
wliich tlie works and experiments of Pestalozzi gave to 
education did not expend itself in mere imitation. The 
principles enunciated needed verification, and, in the 
broad field of education, they were to be applied in 
numberless ways, of which their author was probably 
entirely unconscious. This necessity gave rise to new 
experiments, and in some cases led to new and impor- 
tant discoveries. 

Education through WorTc. — Among the ideas first 
promulgated by Pestalozzi was that a very considerable 
portion of true education might be obtained through 
work, and that kind of work which constitutes the ordi- 
nary vocation of the individual. In his first experi- 
ments at E'euhof with his juvenile criminals, he en- 
deavored to carry this idea into practical execution, but 
without success. In his subsequent experiments, from 
the condition and circumstances of his school, this idea 
was subordinated to others which were forced upon his 
attention, and was never fully developed. 

Agricultural Schools. — De Fellenberg, a contem- 



FEOEBEL AND THE KINDERGARTEN. 131 

porary and friend of Pestalozzi, deeply impressed witli 
this idea, instituted a series of experiments which re- 
sulted in his establishing a school of agriculture, where 
the work of the farm was performed by the students 
while attending to their studies. The work itself was 
made one of the most efficient of the means of improve- 
ment, and the pupils left the school not only fully in- 
structed in the various branches of study, but with a 
minute and comprehensive knowledge of one or more 
of the industrial occupations, and, above all, with mus- 
cles trained to the performance of the work necessary 
to be done in the wide field of industry. 

The success of De Fellenberg in his little Swiss farm 
was so complete, that his plans were extensively copied 
in France and Germany, and afterward in the other 
countries of Europe, and in the United States. The 
agricultural schools now supported by most of the civ- 
ilized nations are the direct offspring of De Fellenberg's 
experiments ; and the technical and trade schools have 
indirectly proceeded from the same source. 

Limitation of these Schools. — In these agricultural, 
technical, and trade schools, the principle of physical 
activity was made practical, but the work was confined 
chiefiy to the higher schools. The German trade 
schools take puj)ils at the age of fourteen, or after 
they have mastered the seven years' primary course. 
Most of the technical schools did not receive pupils un- 
til some years later. 

The Wokk of Fkoebel. — ^It was left to Froebel, an 
eminent German teacher, to apply the same principle 
to the training of children. From personal observation 



132 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 

and study, lie became thorouglily convinced that one of 
the principal causes of evil conduct was the wrong di- 
rection or bias given to the mind of the child in its ear- 
liest years. By a vicious system of home instruction, 
afterwards supplemented by an equally mischievous 
system of school-training, he saw that natural and inno- 
cent instincts and inclinations were constantly thwarted, 
and the mind forced out of the path which Nature 
pointed out as the most direct course to excellence, and 
into the way sanctioned by fashion, custom, or caprice. 
As a result of this false education, he saw natural ac- 
tivities smothered at their birth, and possibilities of use- 
ful life materially diminished. 

PhilantJiropiG Motives. — As in the case of Pesta- 
lozzi, the study and experiments of Froebel seemed to 
spring from an intense desire to benefit the human race, 
and from the conviction that measures of reform must 
commence while the mind is in its most plastic state. 
He had but little faith in measures designed to improve 
and reform those who had grown to maturity in igno- 
rance, and with whom ill-conduct had become a rigid 
habit. 

Froebel accepted the principles laid down by" Pesta- 
lozzi without hesitation. These principles, he saw, 
were designed to bring instruction into harmony with 
l^ature, and he set about devising means by which such 
harmony could be fully realized. He confined his ex- 
periments largely to young children, and for their in- 
struction he devised the methods now known as the 
kindergarten system. 

Development of the Kindergarten. — The word kin- 
dergarten literally means a place where children are 



FKOEBEL AND THE KINDERGAKTEN. I33 

cultivated. Froebel's plan was to collect a number of 
young children and place them in such conditions that 
their own free and spontaneous acts would, in a large 
measure, contribute to their full development. The 
teacher's work was simply direction — taking care that 
the natural activities of the child always had an oppor- 
tunity for free expression, and in the proper direction. 

Froebel's success was so great, that a large number 
of teachers became converted to his methods, and kin- 
dergartens were established not only throughout Ger- 
many, but they have been introduced extensively into 
most of the civilized countries of the world. 

Obscurity of Expression. — Like many other reform- 
ers and originators of great schemes, Froebel was far 
from being clear in the enunciation of the principles 
upon which his work was founded. His insight into 
the nature of children, and his ability to provide the 
appHances necessary for each step of their advancement, 
were far in advance of liis ability to formulate his work 
upon a philosophic basis and give it full expression. He 
seemed also to have imbibed, at an early period, certain 
mystical metaphysical notions, which gave a bias to his 
thinking, and caused him to clothe his thoughts in ob- 
scure phraseology. 

EjQa)EEGARTEN Peinciples. — From the spirit of his 
work, and from the practices common to kindergartens 
generally, we find that the following principles serve as 
a guide to this system of instruction : 

Inherited Powers and Tendencies. — Every child is 
bom with capacities and traits which are inherited from 
its ancestry. These traits give general direction to 



134: PEINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 

thought and conduct, but they may be materially 
changed by education. A naturally good disposition 
may be ruined by a false system of education, while 
evil traits may be nearly, or quite, overcome by a ju- 
dicious education. The education of one generation 
appears as an inherited tendency in the next. 

This principle completely overthrows that philoso- 
phy which insists that the mind is a blank paper upon 
which the educator may write what he pleases ; and it 
is equally fatal to the opposite philosophy, that education 
can do little or nothing toward changing natural tenden- 
cies. Froebel shows that the truth lies between these 
extremes, and that human progress depends upon the 
fact that inherited traits may be changed by education, 
and that the results of this education may, in turn, be 
transmitted by inheritance. Examples of the inherit- 
ance of qualities are seen in the history of every nation, 
and of nearly every family. The successive generations 
of the Hebrews were always noted for their deep re- 
ligious fervor, the Greeks for their love of beauty, and 
the Komans for their power of social organization. Per- 
sonal peculiarities, in like manner, are transmitted in 
families. Through successive generations in the same 
family line, we find a general love of learning ; in 
another, a love of gain ; and in still another, a general 
indolence, which prevents either physical or mental im- 
provement. In intellectual families, the form of scholar- 
ship may, in like manner, be transmitted — one showing 
a taste for the classics, another for natural history and 
kindred branches. 

Education should Commence Early. — ^Education 
should begin at the earliest period of conscious existence. 



FROEBEL AND THE KINDERGARTEN. 135 

Everything that can make an impression upon the senses 
of the child, whether in the form of visible objects or 
tones of voice, becomes of importance as educational in- 
fluences. The mother at home, and the teacher at school, 
should so arrange these objects that the impressions 
conveyed will exactly respond to the power of the 
child most active at the time, and in such a way that 
each in its time will excite the deepest interest and leave 
the most permanent impression. 

Early impressions are most durable, and many a man 
has tried in vain to overcome evil habits contracted in 
childhood. This is especially true in regard to habits 
of speech. Again, by a proper attention to the char- 
acter and order of the impressions made upon the mind 
of the child, a large amount of knowledge can be gained 
incidentally and unconsciously, thereby saving the time 
and effort which would be needed in acquiring the same 
knowledge at a later period. This early education, how- 
ever, is possible only through the efforts of thoroughly 
educated mothers, and all that teachers can do is to sup- 
plement the instruction commenced in the nursery. 

In regard to this subject, Herbert Spencer says: 
" Whoever has watched with any discernment the wide- 
eyed gaze of the infant at surrounding objects, knows 
very well that education does begin thus early, whether 
we intend it or not ; and that these fingerings and suck- 
ings of everything it can lay hold of, these open- 
mouthed listenings to every sound, are the first steps in 
the series which ends in the discovery of unseen planets, 
the invention of calculating engines, the production of 
great paintings, or the composition of symphonies and 
operas. The activity of the faculties from the first be- 



136 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 

ing spontaneous and inevitable, the question is, whether 
we shall supply in due variety the materials on which 
they may exercise themselves ; and to the question so 
put, none but an affirmative answer can be given." 

Education hased on Self -Activity. — The educa- 
tion of children should be based upon self -activity. 
The needs of every child give rise to desires, and the 
desires to activities of some kind. A philosophic sys- 
tem of education will look through these activities to 
the needs which they represent, and will so direct them 
that, while they excite present interest and gratify pres- 
ent desire, they will also contribute to intellectual and 
moral growth and to the future and permanent well- 
being of the child. 

The lowest manifestations of activity are those of 
mere physical motion ; but these are necessary to secure 
that control over the muscles which is requisite to self- 
support and self -protection, and which must precede in- 
tellectual growth. The curiosity of children, manifested 
in their desire to handle objects, to open boxes and 
drawers, and to break playthings, is but an indication of 
their endeavor to convert vague and unsatisfactory no- 
tions into distinct ideas. De Fellenberg says : " Expe- 
rience has taught me that indolence in young persons is 
so directly opposite to their natural disposition to activ- 
ity, that, unless it is the consequence of a bad educa- 
tion, it is almost immediately connected with some con- 
stitutional defect." 

Spontaneous Activity, or Play. — The child must be 
left free to show its activities and express its desires. 
This freedom is best manifested in play, which is free 
activity gratifying desires, and, when not perverted, the 



FROEBEL AND THE KINDERGARTEN. I37 

instinctive and unconscious manner in wMcli well-beino: 
is promoted. It also includes the first deeds of the 
child, in endeavoring to supply its own needs and to 
give pleasure to others. 

Play, which has been defined as the poetry of child- 
hood, may always be considered as an activity which, in 
some way, ministers to needs, and it is a guide to the 
teacher in determining what are the needs that require 
the most attention at the time. It is also a potent 
force to be used in the work of education. But, to this 
end, the plays must be so arranged and systematized 
that the child wiU always find the variety of nature, and 
each play in its turn will be instrumental in furnishing 
him with new ideas, and leading him to higher activities. 

SgJiooI Exercises should give Pleasure. — ^Whatever 
gives pleasure to children generally and at aU times, al- 
ways serves to promote their development in some way. 
This statement is not only the enunciation of a great 
truth, but one entirely antagonistic to the old system of 
education, which held that study was valuable in pro- 
portion as it was distasteful, and that culture was to be 
sought in thwarting, rather than in gratifying, natural 
inclinations. 

The converse of this proposition is also true. What- 
ever is distasteful to children generally, and whatever is 
performed as mere task-work, is of but little worth in 
promoting the true development of the child. Much 
of the work which forms the staple of school instruc- 
tion at the present day is of this character. Keading- 
lessons that children cannot comprehend; the memo- 
rizing of the words of a text-book ; the beginning of a 
subject by learning definitions instead of facts ; the pre- 



138 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 

mature study of grammar ; the reasoning processes of 
mental arithmetic at too early a period ; the spelling and 
defining of words largely in advance of their use — all 
illustrate this distasteful work, and all are examples of 
waste both of time and effort. 

Caution. — This proposition, however, must not be 
taken as meaning that all desires of children are to be 
gratified, or that such desires are always prompted by 
real needs. A great variety of unnecessary desires may 
arise from inheritance, or from false impressions made 
very early in life. It is only when wide investigations 
are made, extending over considerable time, that teach- 
ers can distinguish unerringly between the manifesta- 
tions of spurious and real needs. 

Physical and Mental Activity combined, — Educa- 
tion, as much as possible, should connect every step of 
instruction with some kind of bodily activity. As the 
hand is the chief instrument of work, it should be 
specially trained to perform quickly and accurately all 
the motions needed in the ordinary affairs of life. This 
training of the hand to do, while training the mind to 
think, is one of the most distinctive features of the 
kindergarten system. Indeed, it is beginning to be ap- 
parent that the most effective way to produce the think- 
ing is through work actually performed by the hand — 
the case being analogous to that of getting the use of 
tools by the performance of real work with the tools, 
rather than by the study of the tools themselves. In 
another respect, this training of the hand is of immense 
benefit in mental development. The mind thinks, and 
the will executes. As the mind makes use of the brain 
for thinking, the brain must be trained to perform its 



FEOEBEL AND THE KINDERGARTEN. ;I39 

function in the most effective manner possible ; and as 
the will makes extensive use of the hand in execntinar, 
the hand must be trained to execute the mandate of the 
will in the most effective manner possible. 

The effect of this training of the hand is, first, to 
make the mental impressions deeper and more lasting ; 
secondly, to greatly increase the interest of every sub- 
ject by the discovery of relations which would other- 
wise be undiscovered ; and thirdly, by bringing the 
hand under such perfect control, that in all subsequent 
time it will be immediately and effectually responsive 
to the will. 

The means taken for this training are the successive 
use of objects, which the pupil not only sees but han- 
dles ; the use of blocks in building, accompanied by in- 
struction in regard to the methods of building ; play in 
sand, and modeling in clay with purpose in view ; draw- 
ing, both inventive and imitative ; and the gradual use 
of mechanical tools that are needed in the various occu- 
pations. 

Harmonious Development of all the Powers. — The 
next fundamental principle of Froebel is, that the whole 
nature of the child needs instruction and training from 
the YQYj first. While he fully recognizes the impor- 
tance of order and time in educational processes, he claims 
that a symmetrical and harmonious development of all 
the powers demands that each one shall receive attention 
in proportion to its present activity, and in such a man- 
ner as to promote its normal growth. 

The Schools demanded hy these Principles. — The 
system of education which is devised to carry this prin- 
ciple into practice must provide for physical growth and 



14:0 PEINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 

well-being, by the careful training of every muscle in 
tlie body, and tlie special training of the band ; for tbe 
gradual development of tbe mental faculties in tbe order 
pointed out by Pestalozzi ; for moral culture, by all pos- 
sible incentives to well-doing ; and for sestbetic culture, 
wbicb sball develop taste and lead to an appreciation 
and creation of tbe beautiful. Tbe final outcome of 
tbis fourfold system is tbe full possession of pbysical 
bealtb and strengtb, and a distinct recognition of tbe 
true, tbe good, and tbe beautiful, as guiding our actions 
and as completing our lives. 

Practical Kindeegaeteit Wokk. — Kindergarten 
instruction commences at tbe age of from tbree to five 
years. Tbe cbildren are brougbt togetber in a pleasant 
room, wbere are collected tbe appliances necessary for all 
tbeir varied plays. Care sbould be taken tbat tbe objects 
are not in sucb profusion as to distract attention and pro- 
duce uneasiness. In Froebel's opinion, notbing can be 
more fatal to intellectual stimulus tban tbe great quanti- 
ty of toy-rubbisb witb wbicb cbildren are often supplied. 

The hind ofjplay in wbicb eacb pupil engages is de- 
termined by bis own inclination, somewbat guided by 
tbe teacber. 

The method of play is suggested by tbe teacber, and 
tbe play is so controlled tbat it teacbes an important les- 
son. In tbis way, literally, all play becomes work, and 
all work becomes play. 

Original WorJc. — Tbe work is so conducted, also, 
tbat tbe teacber tells but little, leaving tbe pupil to dis- 
cover tbe needed trutb, and so leading to tbe develop- 
ment of creative energy. Tbis last result is obtained 



FROEBEL AND THE KINDERGAETEN. 141 

largely througli the process of inyentive drawing, and 
the hand-work in which the child is constantly engaged. 

Singing. — In the kindergarten, singing is one of the 
conspicuous agencies used in the promotion of sesthetic 
culture, the rhythm of sound and motion being consid- 
ered of prime importance. The songs selected, both in 
regard to their words and their music, are simple, and 
such as the experience of the world has shown to be of 
interest to children. The delight of children in the 
melodies of Mother Goose affords a key to the nature 
of the songs which are best adapted to the kindergarten 
methods. 

''JPlaying in the DirtP — The love which children 
have for playing in the sand is turned to good account 
in the kindergarten in the teaching of form and of quan- 
tity ; and their love for making " little dirt-pies " is 
directed to systematic modeling in clay. There is no 
manifestation of childish interest that is not or may not 
be made profitable in devising systems of instruction. 

The Law of Order. — In the world of mind and mat- 
ter Froebel saw the evidences of infinite order, which 
must be obeyed in aU. processes of instruction. In the 
language of one of his most distinguished disciples, " he 
made the eternal archetypes of ISTature the playthings 
of childhood, and the mutual relations and combinations 
which ISTature employs in her secret workshop, the 
child's laws and rules of play." 

Study of the System. — The study of the details of 
the kindergarten system cannot fail of being a benefit 
to every teacher. Although the work as a whole may 
not be adapted to the condition and circumstances of 
the community where he is engaged, the fuU elucida- 



142 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OP TEACHING. 

tion of tlie methods employed are suggestive of a thou- 
sand expedients calculated to interest and improve 
almost any grade of schools. By the study of these 
methods, also, the principles upon which they are found- 
ed are much more readily understood and appreciated. 
This desirable information will be found in any of the 
kindergarten manuals which are published in various 
parts of the country. 

The Kindergarten at St. Louis. — The kindergarten 
system has been more thoroughly tried at St. Louis than 
elsewhere in this country. Under the intelligent direc- 
tion of Mr. William T. Harris, the philosophic superin- 
tendent of the city schools, the experiment has been 
made of connecting kindergarten instruction with the 
public schools. This experiment raised many questions 
concerning the system itself, and the modifications it 
needs to adapt itself to the necessities of American 
schools. From a late report of Mr. Harris we make the 
following extract : 

Necessity of Study and Experiment. — " While it is 
probable that the kindergarten may require modifica- 
tions to adapt it to American educational needs, it is not 
at all certain wherein or how much, until its aims and 
methods have been studied, and practical experiments 
have been instituted. It may be that only slight changes 
are required to adapt it to our system — changes relating 
to arrangements of furniture, length of session, age of ad- 
mission, etc. It may be that modifications of the inner 
nature of the system — its psychological idea — may be 
required to adapt it to American wants. Experiment 
will doubtless evolve, one after the other, the practical 
and theoretical problems, and discover the best solutions. 



FROEBEL AND THE KINDERGARTEN. 143 

Scope of Education. — " It is conceded that education 
includes very much more than the province of the 
school. The stage of nurture includes first the physical 
care of the child and the training of body ; next the 
formation of habits in harmony with the customs and 
usages of civilized life. His eating and drinking, and 
other personal habits, must be those of humanity, and 
not those of natural impulse — those of animals. From 
the first the child begins to use his senses as instruments 
for obtaining knowledge. His growing power is watched 
anxiously by the family, and his efforts are stimulated 
and encouraged. He acquires, in this way, a most im- 
portant stock of theoretical ideas, as well as command 
of the use of his senses and of language, the most impor- 
tant of all instruments, before he comes under the in- 
fluence of the school. 

Bcojpe of the Kindergarten. — " The kindergarten 
proposes to invade this realm of nurture ; to systemize 
it, from the cradle onward to the school. The mother 
shall substitute conscious, rational action for whim and 
caprice in the management of her child, and shall watch 
over the orderly development of the faculties of her 
child, as a scientific gardener watches over the develop- 
ment of plants in his garden. Froebel proposed to have 
this realm of nurture transformed into systematic cult- 
ure, embracing provinces — physical, mental, and moral. 
He proposed to do this in such a way as to preserve all 
the sweetness of childhood, and to stimulate and encour- 
age its spontaneity. 

Delicate Adjustments. — " Here was the great point 
in Froebel's success. He overcame seeming impossi- 
bilities, by adopting a method which could be put in 



144 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 

practice without injury to the spontaneity of childliood, 
while it really disciplined the child's will into rational 
forms. This delicate point is at once the greatest merit 
of Froebel, and the ground of the greatest danger for 
those who attempt to carry it out in practice. It is still 
more dangerous for those who attempt to modify Froe- 
bel and naturalize it in other countries. Lacking a full 
insight into the problem, and consequently misunder- 
standing Froebel's intentions, in the order and make-up 
of his gifts, it frequently happens that modifications are 
proposed which utterly lack the delicate adjustment of 
Froebel. If carried out, they would permanently injure 
the development of individuality in the child, and pro- 
duce a stunted character. Froebel himseK goes almost 
to the edge of this matter : it is easy to go over the edge. 
Philosophy Involved. — " Momentous questions must 
be settled in psychology before one can fully appreciate 
how wisely Froebel has planned, or how dangerous it is 
for his followers to depart from his footsteps without a 
full insight into the subject. There are deeper grounds 
than mere national ones, important though the latter 
may be. There is human nature in general, and the 
law of its unfolding — common to all civilized nations. 
"What is common to civilized nations, however, is not 
shared by haK-civihzed nations, for they interfere with 
the development of individuality at a far earlier stage 
than civilized nations do, and pui^osely dwarf its 
growth. Civilized nations differ as to limits imposed ; 
but all peoples who have set a constitutional limit to 
the caprice of their chief executive, allow individuality 
to develop to that degree that it discriminates its ra- 
tional from its arbitrary phase. 



FROEBEL AND THE KINDERGARTEN. I45 

Questions to he Itettled. — '^ Should caprice be tol- 
erated in any phase of the development of childhood ? 
Ought it not to be annihilated as soon as it appears ? Is 
it wise to rationalize the activity of childhood as soon 
as it begins % Is there not a danger in any systematic 
training of the child, that his will-power may become 
weakened by subordinating it to prescribed rules before 
it gets developed sufficiently ? Moreover, that question 
of too much stimulus at an early age is a serious one. 
We all know that the childi-en brought up in the city 
are over-excited from infancy by the multitude of ob- 
jects continually presented to their senses. In the 
country it is far otherwise. The difference between 
city-developed individuality and that of the country is 
very great as to depth and toughness. The alertness of 
the city intellect is purchased at a sacrifice of other 
qualities which are essential to fully-developed charac- 
ter. Questions like these deserve careful consideration." 
7 



CHAPTEE IX. 

AGASSIZ; AND SCIENCE IN ITS RELATIONS TO 
EDUCATION, 

The Scope and End of Science. — In an article 
upon the " Culture demanded bj Modern Life," Prof. 
Youmans says : " Science, in its true and largest mean- 
ing, is the right interpretation of I^ature — a compre- 
hension of the workings of law wherever law prevails. 
It matters nothing whether the subjects are stones or 
stars, human souls, or complications of social relations ; 
the most perfect of each constitutes its special science, 
and the comprehensive view of the relations which each 
sustains to all realizes the highest idea of science." 

This definition at once elevates science out of the 
domain of mere materialism, and makes it comprehend 
every department of human thought. The "right in- 
terpretation of JSTature " means the pursuit of truth in 
every field of research. It is not the subject-matter, 
but the positive knowledge of the subject, including 
both facts and inferences, that constitutes the science. 
The highest science is that which starts from the laws 
established by the special sciences, coordinates them all, 
and, by a process of higher inferences, arrives at the 
highest and most comprehensive laws. 



AGASSIZ AND SCIENCE. I47 

Philosophy and Utility. — In the ancient philoso- 
phies, a broad distinction was made between the prod- 
ucts of reflection, or speculative thought, and those sub- 
jects which consider the common and daily needs of 
men. The former alone were thought worthy of atten- 
tion, and scholars were encouraged to pursue truth and 
virtue for their own sake. The methods of these phi- 
losophies were also, to a great extent, those of specula- 
tion rather than investigation, and the value of the phys- 
ical sciences was quite underrated. This sentiment in 
regard to the nature of philosophic research continued 
down to periods comparatively modern. Bacon was the 
first philosopher to take distinct issue with this idea, and 
to proclaim that the true object of philosophic inquiry 
was " fruit," in the promotion of human welfare, and 
that the true method was the investigation and interpre- 
tation of [N'ature. 

The spirit of the old philosophies, to some extent, 
still survives, and scientific men of the present day ex- 
hort enthusiastic students " to pursue science for its own 
sake," and they frequently brand the idea of use as a 
mere " bread-and-butter consideration," beneath the no- 
tice of the true votary of science. 

Prof. TyndalVs Opinion. — Prof. Tyndall, in his 
farewell speech at ]^ew York, uses the following lan- 
guage in regard to this question: "In the pursuit of 
science, the first worker is the investigator of natural 
truth, whose vocation it is to pursue that truth, and ex- 
tend the field of discovery for the truth's own sake, 
and without reference to practical ends.". Again he 
says : " Keep your sympathetic eye on the originator of 
knowledge. Give him the freedom necessary for his 



148 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 

researclies, not demanding of Mm so-called practical re- 
sults. Above all things, avoid that question which ig- 
norance so often addresses to genius : ' What is the use 
of your work ? ' " These extracts show the persistence 
of philosophic notions, even after the systems of thought 
to which they were attached have been entirely super- 
seded. 

Another' View. — Many of the most far-seeing think- 
ers of modern times do not share in this opinion of the 
ignoble nature, or secondary importance, of utility. They 
claim that the question " What use ? " is entirely legiti- 
mate when applied to any pursuit in which mankind 
can engage, and that the answer to this question, show- 
ing that the pursuit is useful or otherwise, is an infal- 
lible guide in determining whether it should be under- 
taken or not. The term " use," however, would not be 
restricted to any mere material consideration, but would 
be made to include all possible human needs, physical 
and spiritual. In this broad sense, use becomes the most 
powerful incentive to labor and investigation. A desire 
to reap personal advantage, or to benefit one's own fam- 
ily or kindred, or the broader philanthropy which con- 
siders the welfare of the whole human family, is a much 
stronger motive for action in any direction, than one 
which takes hold of the intellect but fails to reach the 
emotions. 

I^rof. Huxley's Opinion. — In a lecture upon " Bi- 
ology," Prof. Huxley says : " I judge of the value of 
human pursuits by their bearing upon human inter- 
ests ; in other words, by their utility. 'Now, in an 
Englishman's mouth, it generally means that by which 
we get pudding, or praise, or both. I have no doubt 



AGASSIZ AND SCIENCE. 149 

that is one meaning of the word utility, bnt it by no 
means includes all I mean by utility. I think that 
knowledge of every kind is useful in proportion as it 
tends to give people right ideas, which are essential to 
the foundation of right practice, and to remove wrong 
ideas, which are the no less essential foundation and 
fertile mothers of every description of error in practice. 
And, upon the whole, inasmuch as this world is, after 
all, whatever practical people may say, absolutely gov- 
erned by ideas, and very often by the wildest and most 
hypothetical ideas, it is a matter of the greatest im- 
portance that our theories of things, and even of things 
that seem a long way apart from our daily lives, should 
be, as far as possible, true, and, as far as possible, re- 
moved from error. It is not only in the coarser, prac- 
tical sense of the word ' utility,' but in this higher and 
broader sense, that I measure the value of a study." 

Antagonisms Harmonized. — There seems to be no 
need of essential antagonism between those who would 
urge the importance of original investigation and those 
who demand that " fruit " to human welfare shall be the 
result of all investigation. From history we derive two 
essential facts bearing upon the subject. In the Middle 
Ages, when intellectual operations were purely specula- 
tive, ignoring alike ITature and human needs, the specu- 
lations themselves were valueless as reaching results in 
any of the realms of truth ; and the vital force spent 
upon them was, in a great measure, wasted. On the 
other hand, since the time of Bacon, scientific investi- 
gation has been pursued in the spirit of utility, and 
there have resulted, not only increased comforts and hap- 
piness to man, but higher philosophic results in the re- 



150 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 

gions of pure intellect and morals tlian tlie world has 
ever before seen. Intellectual speculation, divorced from 
humanity, results in visionary dreaming and in the de- 
struction of intellectual power. Intellectual investiga- 
tion, in the interests of humanity, reaches the loftiest 
heights of pure thought, and indefinitely increases in- 
tellectual power. 

From the facts of history, the broad inference has 
been made that every discovery in the fields of physical, 
intellectual, or moral activity has been of use in estab- 
lishing a law, and the discovery of every law has di- 
rectly benefited man. 'No matter how useless the new 
truths appeared at the moment of discovery, in the end 
they were found useful as contributing in some way to 
human welfare. 

Incentive to Investigation, — This generalization be- 
comes an incentive and an inspiration to active scientific 
workers. "With the most implicit faith that any dis- 
coveries which he can make will be of use to the hu- 
man race, the student of science can now devote him- 
self to any branch of scientific research to which his 
taste may incline him. His answer to the question 
" What use ? " is ever ready in general terms, if not in 
specific details ; and there is no reason for either mis- 
representing the nature of utility, nor for ignoring it 
altogether. The great incentive to endeavor still re- 
mains ; and although he may never experience the di- 
rect benefit of his discoveries, in the certainty of their 
final utility, he may abandon himself to the pleasure of 
their pursuit, content to leave the richest fruit of his 
work to be gathered by those who come after him. 

It is seen from the foregoing that the true scientific 



AGASSIZ AND SCIENCE. 151 

spirit constantly considers human welfare, and in this 
way indirectly promotes moral action. It seeks to find 
that which is true, in order to establish that which is 
good. The discovery of every new law, in the infinite 
order of the universe, becomes at once a new power to 
be nsed for human advancement, and a new incentive 
to human action. We have next to consider the methods 
which science uses most directly and effectually to ac- 
complish its work. 

Methods of Science. — The general method, as con- 
tained in the direction to investigate I^ature closely and 
accurately, was laid down by Bacon. The successive, 
steps in this investigation as now practised by scientific 
men are stated as follows by Prof. Huxley : 

First : Observation of Facts^ including that artificial 
observation called experiment. 

Secondly : The process of tying up similar facts in 
bundles, ticketed ready for use, which is called com- 
parison and classification / the results of the process — 
the ticketed bundles — ^being named general jjropositions. 

Thirdly: Deduction, which takes us from the gen- 
eral proposition to facts again, teaches us to anticipate 
from the ticket what is in the bundle. 

Fourthly : Verification, which is the process of as- 
certaining whether in point of fact our anticipation is a 
correct one. 

Scientific Methods in Teaching. — It will be seen that 
the steps in this scientific method are substantially those 
which have previously been described in the chapters on 
Objective and Subjective Teaching. The experience of 
scientific men has shown that this is not only the most 
direct method of making new discoveries, but it is the 



152 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 

only method by wiiicli positive and certain knowledge 
can be obtained, and made a permanent possession of 
the mind. The experience of teacliers has also sho^m 
that these methods are the best and most direct for ac- 
complishing the objects of education — the acquisition of 
useful knowledge, and the development of the mental 
faculties. The man of science and the educator, though 
starting from different points and traversing different 
routes, have arrived at the same results, the conclusions 
of the one strengthening and corroborating those of the 
other. 

Defects in Teaching which Science Remedies. — In 
the work of Pestalozzi, the subject-matter of the lessons 
given in the classes was of a fragmentary character ; and 
although it aroused the attention and trained the observ- 
ing powers, it often failed to show the relations of one 
lesson to another, and to give that connected chain of 
thought necessary to scientific reasoning. 

In the schools founded upon the Pestalozzian princi- 
ples, the same state of things is usually observed, the 
objects being chosen solely for their use in impressing 
the direct lesson of the hour, without considering the 
relation of the objec!: to the other objects or facts in the 
same field of investigation or department of thought. 

Waking up Mind. — In the " Theory and Practice 
of Teaching " — ^the most valuable of all the contributions 
which this country has yet made to the literature of 
teaching — the author, David P. Page, gives a most inter- 
esting sketch of a lesson upon an ear of corn, under the 
suggestive title of " Waking up Mind." This work was 
published in 1847, and the lesson in question was one of 
the first expositions of the nature and value of object- 



AGASSIZ AND SCIENCE. 153 

lessons ever made in this country. But Mr. Page died 
before he could see the fruits which were to come by 
following out the principles involved in his model lesson. 
He probably little thought that the suggestion, which 
he regarded valuable only as breaking the monotony 
and tedium of the ordinary schoolroom routine, was 
destined to very nearly supersede that routine in pri- 
mary schools ; and that all the work given to pupils would 
eventually be so arranged that each lesson would result 
in " waking up mind." 

Growth of the ScientiJiG PrinGijple. — The method 
so graphically described by Mr. Page has been largely 
adopted since the date of his writing, under the name 
of object-teaching, and its principles and limitations are 
now quite clearly understood. Meanwhile, science has 
become more and more systematic, and at last it is seen 
that the methods of science and the methods of educa- 
tion are identical. Science dealing with knowledge, 
and education dealing with development, move along the 
same routes ; and the apparent antagonism between the 
practical and the theoretical disappears. 

Many of the most prominent among the scientific 
men of the present century have taken deep interest in 
educational work, both for its special bearings upon 
science, and for its effects upon humanity at large. In 
the general change of educational methods they have 
recognized the evidences of real progress ; and there has 
come to be a quite prevalent opinion that these changes 
should go on until our school courses include the subject- 
matter as well as the methods of science. 

Agassiz^s Work. — Among those men of science who 
became specially interested in schools, none occupied a 



154 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 

higher place than Prof. Louis Agassiz, the great nat- 
uralist. During the whole of his long and most hon- 
orable career as a man of science, while intent upon 
his special work, he ever sought to raise education out 
of its narrow formahsm, and to infuse into it something 
of the spirit which animates the devotee of science. 
During the last years of his life, the educational value 
of science seemed to occupy his attention more and 
more ; and he so devoted his energies to this work, that 
he may be justly regarded as the great leader in the new 
educational reform. 

Eaely Life. — The early life of Agassiz eminently 
fitted him for this position. He was born upon the 
banks of Lake Neufchatel, in the northwest part of 
Switzerland. His early youth was passed amid the most 
noble and beautiful scenery in Europe. In his work on 
Pestalozzi, Prof. Krusi gives the following description 
of this lake and its vicinity : 

" To the west, the Jura Mountains extend in an un- 
broken chain, delightfully varied by pastures, forests, 
deep ravines, and masses of bare rock. From the sum- 
mits of these mountains the traveler looks down upon 
the tranquil lake beneath ; while to the south lies the 
wide valley, with all its variegated richness, bounded by 
the snow-clad Alps, from the centre of which towers the 
majestic summit of Mont Blanc. The valley is trav- 
ersed by the river Orbe, which, fed from an invisible 
lake above, rises suddenly from beneath a high rock, 
and lower down falls over a precipice." 

Love of Nature. — With such attractions around him, 
the peculiarly impressible mind of young Agassiz could 
scarcely fail of becoming enthusiastically in love with 



AGASSIZ AND SCIENCE. 155 

]S"atiire. Much of his time in early youth was spent 
upon the lake, or among the hills, not for the pur- 
poses of mere recreation, but for «tudy. The fish he 
caught were lessons rather than food ; and at the age of 
eleven years, when he was sent to school, he was familiar 
with the names, appearance, and habits of all the finny 
tribe of Lake IlTeufchatel. 

Vacation Studies. — During his vacations he pur- 
sued, with intense enthusiasm, the other departments of 
natural history, and traversed fields and forests to be- 
come minutely and thoroughly acquainted with their 
various inhabitants. This devotion to the study of l^a- 
ture served to increase rather than diminish his love for 
books, and in all the schools he attended he stood among 
the foremost in his class. The knowledge of fishes 
which he obtained upon his fishing excursions while a 
boy, and which he greatly extended during his school 
vacations, was so accurate and exhaustive within the 
limits of his observation, that, while at the university, 
he was able to make many important corrections in the 
published works on this subject. At a little later period, 
a scientific expedition returned from Brazil with an im- 
mense amount of material for scientific study. The 
professor who had collected the fishes unfortunately 
died before his work was completed, and to Agassiz was 
committed the task of arranging, classifying, and de- 
scribing, the specimens preserved. This work was per- 
formed with so much ability, that it placed him at once 
in the foremost rank of naturalists. 

Study of the Glaciers. — His next great work was 
the examination of the glacial system of the Alps. 
These peculiar formations of ice, which extend down- 



156 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 

ward from tlie general snow-line of the mountains thou- 
sands of feet, and in some cases along the slope of the 
mountains many miles, had attracted the attention of 
scientific men from early times, and many ingenious 
speculations had been made in regard to them. Agassiz 
became deeply interested in these inquiries ; but instead 
of hazarding speculations concerning them, he set about 
a series of observations and experiments, which occupied 
many months, and occasioned several visits to the moun- 
tains. He was obliged, at times, to pass weeks together 
in a rude hut high up on the mountain, and on the very 
verge of the glacier. His efforts were rewarded by the 
most complete success ; and, from the facts which he 
gathered, he was able to determine the nature of the 
glaciers, their origin, their rate of motion, and their 
effect upon the ground they traversed. 

Enlarging the generalizations from the facts observed, 
he was competent to state the laws which governed the 
formation, motion, and continuance of glaciers so accu- 
rately, that all subsequent observations have only served 
to verify them ; so that evidences of glacial action have 
been found in numerous places where before they had 
never been supposed to exist. Guided by the inferences 
and generalizations which he made, we are now able to 
look back upon a period in the earth's history when 
masses of ice, thousands of feet thick, extended from 
the northern polar regions far toward the equator, flow- 
ing slowly and irresistibly forward, disrupting moun- 
tains, and ploughing out deep furrows for streams and 
lakes, and finally dissolving under the heat of the semi- 
tropical zone. By the means of this generalization, a 
new light was shed upon geology and geography, and a 



AGASSIZ AND SCIENCE. I57 

new province of the unknown was brought within the 
domain of human intelligence. 

Spieit of his Wokk. — The spirit cherished bj Agas- 
siz while young, animated him through life, and in all 
his work he was a most careful investigator, allowing no 
facts to escape him, while he was always reticent in re- 
gard to opinions until the whole case had been exam- 
ined. These qualities and habits gave weight to his 
mature judgment, and he became a great power in the 
scientific world. 

The Old Methods Distrusted. — Agassiz's experience 
in the schools early made him distrustful of the methods 
of education generally pursued. He was conscious that, 
for his own knowledge and mental power, he was more 
indebted to his solitary rambles than to his formal course 
of study. He further saw that, in the prevailing edu- 
cation, language largely took the place of thought ; that 
more attention was given to the symbols of knowledge 
than to the knowledge itself ; that much of the knowl- 
edge pretended to be given was so inaccurate and super- 
ficial as to be of little worth ; that text-books and lexi- 
cons were invested with an inflexible authority fatal to 
independence of thought ; and that the whole process 
of education did not result in giving accurate knowl- 
edge, power of vigorous thought, or incentives to right 
action. 

Reformation Begun. — These errors, he saw, could 
be corrected only by a radical and fundamental change 
in the whole system of education, in which the scientific 
spirit and methods should play a prominent part. He 
commenced the work of reform with his characteristic 



158 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 

caution and energy, calling attention to some of the 
prominent defects of education in liis public lectures, 
and demonstrating tlie superiority of the new system by 
instructing classes of students in the Museum of Natural 
History which he established at Cambridge. 

The School at Penihese. — His success was so great, 
that he resolved to try and reach the public schools by 
instruction offered to teachers. To this end, he set about 
the establishment of a class, to be held in the summer 
vacations of the schools, where teachers might obtain a 
knowledge of the scientific methods. His idea finally 
took shape in the establishment of the Anderson School 
of J^atural History at Penikese Island, on the southeast 
coast of Massachusetts. At this point fifty pupils were 
in attendance the first year, under his immediate super- 
vision. He was assisted in his undertaking by several 
of the most noted specialists in natural history. The 
instruction given was chiefly for the purpose of illus- 
trating methods. Each pupil was set to the study of 
some specimen "of zoology, in which study he was 
obliged to exercise his observing powers until he had 
seen, and was able to describe, the most noticeable points 
in the object. The facts derived from a large number 
of observations were then compared, and inferences 
made, which led to the establishment of general laws. 
The result of the experiment was in the highest degree 
satisfactory in regard to the nature and amount of the 
instruction given, and the enthusiasm inspired among 
the pupils. 

A New Era. — The establishment of this school 
marks a new era in the history of education in this 
country. Teachers, fully imbued with its spirit, have 



AGASSIZ AND SCIENCE. 159 

carried its methods into their respective spheres of la- 
bor distributed throughout the country ; and from their 
schools, as centres of influence, both the spirit and 
methods are rapidly spreading downward toward the 
elementary schools, where they will eventually become 
the common possession of all pupils in every grade of 
instruction. The new influence is demonstrated in a 
deeper interest manifested in study, in the fresh im- 
13ulse given to scientific research, and in the greater ease 
Avith which pupils are aroused to intellectual life. 

Unfinished Plcms. — The life of " the master," as he 
was affectionately called by his pupils, was cut short at 
the very commencement of this most important enter- 
prise of his life, and it is left to others to carry on to a 
successful termination the work which he began. Un- 
fortunately, he left no authoritative statement in regard 
to either the methods or plans which he intended to 
pursue, and probably he had never consciously formu- 
lated them. After taking the initial steps in the right 
direction, he would have been guided by the same prin- 
ciples which must control all fruitful investigation, and 
welcomed such truth as would have been developed, 
each new truth extending the boundaries of experience, 
and serving as a guide to the next step in advance. 

SuMMAEY OF Peinciples. — From direct statements 
made in the lectures of Agassiz, from fragmentary hints 
scattered through his writings, and from the general 
tenor and spirit of his works, we may regard the follow- 
ing principles as lying at the foundation of his theory 
of education, and as indicating the direction which effort 
must take in order to reduce this theory to practice. 



160 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 

Training the Observing Powers. — He was a tlior- 
ougli believer in tlie Pestalozzian principle, that the 
senses and the observing powers are to be cultivated 
and trained from the ontset, and that the other mental 
powers are to be brought into activity in the order of 
their natural growth. Further than this, he believed 
that the successful operation of the higher faculties of 
the mind in solving the problems of thought, and in 
arriving at just conclusions, depends upon the faithful- 
ness with which perception has been cultivated ; and he 
seemed to have little or no faith in the value of that 
instruction which has no basis in experience. 

Importance of Hand-Worh. — In his practice he 
strongly supported the most distinctive feature of Froe- 
bel — the necessity of training the hand as well as the eye. 
In all his work he instructed his pupils to handle the 
specimens which they were studying, so as to become 
familiar with them under all circumstances. He also 
advocated the general introduction of drawing as one of 
the most essential of the studies which could be pursued 
in the common schools. He frequently remarked that, 
" in the study of natural history, the ability to draw the 
specimens under consideration is equivalent to the pos- 
session of a third eye." He regarded drawing, also, as 
one of the most important aids to mental development, 
and to the acquisition of knowledge in every grade of 
school. 

Science the Basis of Education. — From his experi- 
ence and observation he was convinced that the subject- 
matter of instruction, in general use in schools, is of but 
little practical importance in promoting the highest in- 
terests of humanity, thus defeating one of the f unda- 



AGASSIZ AND SCIENCE. 161 

mental aims of education. Tlie recollections of his 
boyhood days gave him an intense sympathy with those 
who had a longing for real rather than apparent knowl- 
edge. He fonnd in science only, the knowledge which 
would serve the double purpose of education in the most 
effective manner. 

Besides this, he found that the possession of real or 
scientific knowledge was of the greatest importance, not 
only in carrying on all the complicated relations of so- 
ciety, but in successfully competing for the prizes of 
the world. In agriculture, in manufactures, in the arts, 
and in business generally, success depends largely upon 
the possession of accurate knowledge in these several 
departments. In the struggle for existence, ignorance 
has no chance in competition with intelligence. 

This accurate knowdedge is of benefit in other re- 
spects. It bestows upon labor its largest returns, and 
gives to the laborer leisure for higher pursuits. It di- 
rects efforts to worthy and attainable ends, and points 
out the way of improvement. It prevents the loss in- 
volved in making anew experiments w^hich time and 
again have resulted in failure ; and it effectually warns 
against the continuance of courses of conduct which 
are destructive alike to human effort and human wel- 
fare. 

Knowledge Necessary for Discipline. — In addition 
to the practical value of scientific knowledge, he regard- 
ed the methods of science as preeminently adapted to 
the culture of the mind. These methods lead not to 
speculative but to accurate results ; and he had a pro- 
found distrust for that culture which ignores, or affects 
to despise, scientific knowledge. He would extend to 



162 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 

every department of human thought the methods which 
had proved of so much value in his own field of natu- 
ral history. 

Authority in Science and Education. — Prof. Agas- 
siz utterly repudiated authority in science or education. 
The fundamental condition of all excellence in mental 
work is absolute freedom of thought. Investigation is 
in direct antagonism to authority in any of its forms. 
Every human being must be free to investigate and to 
think, and to follow the results of investigation and 
thought whithersoever they may lead. The objective 
point of all study is truth. Any system that imposes 
authority upon the intellect, so far as it succeeds, stifles 
investigation, and takes away from the individual the 
power of judging between truth and falsehood. 

Authority is also fatal to that confidence which every 
one should have in the results of his own mental pro-, 
cesses. This confidence will be more or less absolute, de- 
pending upon the carefulness of previous study ; but the 
interposition of authority leads to a distrust of infer- 
ences w^hich are based on well-known facts, and in this 
way weakens both the intellect and the will. 

TJioroughness in WorTc and Study. — In all the say- 
ings and work of Agassiz he advocated and practised 
the greatest possible thoroughness. His maxims in this 
regard may be summed up as follows : " Observe care- 
fully, and compare the results of different observations, 
before you state your conclusions as facts." " Be sure 
of all the facts that enter into the case before you gen- 
eralize." "Yerify the results of your generalization 
before you state it as a law or a principle." " ISTever 
be hasty in coming to decisions." " Be reticent as to 



AGASSIZ AND SCIENCE. 1^3 

the expression of opinions nntil the most thorough in- 
vestigation has been made." 

Scientific Object-Lessons. — The system which Agas- 
siz put in practice in his school at Penikese, and which 
he advocated in his lectures, includes object-lessons ; but 
from the very outset he would give these lessons in con- 
nected series, making each series lead directly into one 
of the sciences. By this means all the good results of 
object-lessons will be gained, with the additional advan- 
tages that both the methods used and the knowledge 
gained are of great worth in after-life. 

The principles of teaching which Agassiz advocated 
and practised are now generally accepted and made the 
basis of instruction in scientific schools. Among scien- 
tific men there is a substantial agreement in regard to 
them. Laboratories for practical experiment and inves- 
tigation on the part of the students are now a part of 
the equipment of all the technical and scientific schools, 
and they are rapidly becoming a necessity wherever 
science is taught. 

Corroborative Views. — The following extract from 
a late speech of Prof. Huxley upon the study of biolo- 
gy shows how far he is in accord with the practices 
w^hich proved so successful at Penikese : " Granting 
that biology is something worth studying, what is the 
best way of studying it ? Here I must point out that, 
since biology is a physical science, the methods of study- 
ing it must be analogous to that which is followed in the 
other physical sciences. It has long been recognized 
that, if a man wishes to be a chemist, it is not only 
necessary that he shonild read chemical books and attend 
chemical lectures, but that he should actually himself 



164: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 

perform tlie fundamental experiments in liis laboratory, 
and know exactly what the words which he finds in his 
books and hears from his teachers mean. If he does 
not, he may read till the crack of doom, but he will 
never know much about chemistry. That is what every 
chemist will tell you, and the physicist will do the same 
for his branch of science. The great changes and im- 
provements in physical and chemical scientific education, 
which have taken place of late, have all resulted from 
the combination of practical teaching with the reading 
of books and the hearing of lectures. 

" The same thing is true in biology. ITobody will 
ever know anything about biology, except in a dilettant, 
* paper-philosophic' way, who contents himself with read- 
ing books on botany, zoology, and the like; and the 
reason for this is simple and easy to understand. It is, 
that all language is merely symbolical of the things, of 
which it treats ; the more complicated the things, the 
more bare is the symbol, and the more its verbal defini- 
tion requires to be supplemented by the information 
derived directly from the handling, and the seeing, and 
the touching of the thing symbolized: that is really 
what is at the bottom of the whole matter. It is plain 
common sense, as all truth in the long run is, only com- 
mon sense clarified. 

" If you want a man to be a tea-merchant, you don't 
tell him to read books about China, or about tea, but 
you put him into a tea-merchant's office, where he has the 
handling, the smelling, and the tasting of tea. With- 
out the sort of knowledge which can be gained in this 
practical way, his exploits as a tea-merchant will soon 
come to a bankrupt conclusion. The ' paper-philoso- 



AGASSIZ AND SCIENCE. 1G5 

phers ' are under the delusion that physical science can 
be mastered as literary accomplishments are acquired, 
but unfortunately it is not so. You may read any quan- 
tity of books, and you may be almost as ignorant as you 
were at starting, if you don't have, at the back of your 
minds, the change for words in definite images, which 
can only be acquired through the operation of your ob- 
serving faculties in the phenomena of ISTature." 

Uses of Hypotheses. — The question has lately arisen 
in scientific circles as to whether hypotheses and theo- 
ries as such should be taught in our schools — one party 
claiming that school-instruction should be confined to 
demonstrated science, and the other maintaining that 
the relations of the facts can be much better understood 
by grouping them in accordance with a probable theory. 
In the discussion, one position taken by those in favor 
of excluding hypotheses is entirely untenable. It is as- 
sumed that demonstrated laws, or the results of scientific 
study, should be taught to pupils, and that such laws 
should be made the basis of their education. 

A practice of this kind would be subversive of the 
highest good to be derived from educational processes. 
It would state scientific truths in dogmatic forms, and 
would require an unquestioned acceptance of them. It 
would present principles before the facts are known 
upon which the principles are based, and it would give 
formulas of words meaningless to those acquiring them. 
It would retain in the worst form the dogmatic and 
memorizing processes. 

On the other hand, the teaching of hypotheses pre- 
maturely is open to similar objections. Presented be- 
fore all the facts bearing upon the case are known, and 



166 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 

before tlie evidences have been investigated, the hj- 
potbesis becomes a mere verbal formula. As an instru- 
ment of education, it fails to awaken the mind to any 
productive thought ; and it frequently becomes a serious 
detriment to future investigation, from the mistaken 
notion that the matter is already understood. 

Value of Hyjpotheses. — Science in-the-making makes 
use of hypotheses. When facts in a certain direction 
first become known, they are apparently disconnected. 
A hypothesis is the effort to construct a rational system 
that will show all the existing relations, and it is rela- 
tively good when it accounts for all the facts in the case 
without disregarding laws which have been established 
in other departments of thought. When new facts 
bearing upon the case are discovered that the hypothesis 
does not cover, then it must be changed or abandoned 
for a larger one. These provisional hypotheses are 
necessary to scientific advancement, and they are detri- 
mental only when facts are distorted or suppressed for 
the purpose of maintaining them. 

Hypotheses in Education. — It is very plain that the 
hypothesis which accounts for facts has no place in pri- 
mary schools, or in any schools, until the facts are first 
known. It must be inferred from the facts, and the 
true office of the educator is to present facts in such 
connection that rational hypotheses must be inferred. 
The grounds for inference are well set forth in the fol- 
lowing extract from an essay by Prof. Chflford : 

" Suppose that we do not merely want to make a sup- 
position, but to infer from facts before us what actually 
happened in any case. Then we must make the as- 
sumption that there is some sort of uniformity in ITa- 



AGASSIZ AND SCIENCE. 167 

ture. "Without this we cannot infer at all ; for inference 
consists in transferring the experience which we have 
had under certain conditions, to events happening under 
like conditions of which we have not had experience. 
It is true that we cannot be absolutely sure of the uni- 
formity of IS^ature, or that our present conception of it 
is right ; but still, it is the only thing we have to go 
upon. Human knowledge is never absolutely and the- 
oretically certain, but a great deal of it is certain, which 
is all we want." 

Taking the uniformity of I^ature for granted, the 
hypothesis may be inferred from the facts known — ^the 
process being one of comparison and generalization. 
All comprehensive generahzations, however, belong to 
the advanced course of instruction, as they appeal ex- 
clusively to the reason and judgment. A hypothesis 
given antecedent to study is an obstacle to improve- 
ment ; but inferred as a resultant of study, it becomes 
an important aid to intellectual progress. 



CHAPTER X. 

SYSTEMS OF EDUCATION COMPARED, 

Introductory. — The examination of educational 
principles in the preceding pages has led, incidentally, 
to a notice of the methods of teaching which have been 
practised from time to time. These methods, so widely 
differing in kind, have all grown out of the different the- 
ories in regard to the ends to be sought in education, and 
the best means of accomplishing these ends. In the 
present chapter there is given a more extended sum- 
mary of methods, with a brief examination of the prin- 
ciples upon which they are founded. 

The methods to which special attention is directed 
may be grouped under four heads, viz. : " Memorizing," 
" The Study of Books," " The Study of Things," and 
" Experiment and Work." Each of these now has its 
special advocates, and each is loudly demanding recog- 
nition. The first two have the advantage of possession, 
and the last tw^o of representing the new thought in 
education. 

Memorizing. — ^Upon the establishment of regular 
systems of school instruction, the first efforts nearly al- 
ways seem to be directed to making the people ac- 



SYSTEMS OF EDUCATION COMPARED. 169 

quainted witli the results of tlie experience of investiga- 
tions and reflections of the sages of the past. This 
wisdom, usnallj expressed in the form of aphorisms and 
proverbs, is considered the best possible basis for educa- 
tion ; and committing the words to memory is regarded 
as the best, if not the only, means by which the wisdom 
may be obtained. 

Chinese Schools. — In China this system came very 
early into practice, even before the time of Confucius, 
and has continued until the present day. Chinese 
schools are nearly as common as those of the most ad- 
vanced civilized nations. They are regularly graded, 
from the primary schools in the little hamlets, to 
the Imperial University at Peking. Throughout these 
schools the instruction consists solely in memorizing 
the productions of the classic Chinese writers. This 
instruction is graded to meet the requirements of the 
different grades of schools, that of the primary schools 
including the easier and more common literary works, 
while that of the University embraces the writings of 
Confucius and the other most distinguished religious 
and moral teachers. 

The examinations aim solely to test the fidelity of 
pupils in repeating the exact words in which the wise 
sayings of the sages are recorded ; and no effort is made 
to make them understand any portion of the doctrine 
which the words contain. Criticism is a thing unknown, 
as a doubt would be equivalent to sacrilege. The grad- 
uates of the schools are rewarded with official govern- 
mental positions, and every possible incentive is offered 
for success in school-work. Indeed, through the school 
only can any one obtain position or preferment. In no 
8 



170 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 

otlier country does tlie successful scholar so directly re- 
ceive reward. 

History demonstrates tlie results of the Chinese sys- 
tem. The memorizing of words, and the blind and 
implicit acceptance of authority, though rigorously pur- 
sued for centuries, have proved inadequate bases of 
education. For a thousand years, the people who made 
the earliest advances in most of the arts and sciences 
have remained stationary, or have gone backward in the 
scale of civilization. 

The very measures taken to perpetuate intelligence 
have been the most efficient means of arresting prog- 
ress ; and as long as the methods of instruction are un- 
changed, the most populous empire of the world must 
remain in a state of semi-barbarism. 

The Monkish System. — Schools established during 
the Middle Ages were all in the charge of monks, and 
the staple of instruction was the memorizing of such 
texts and rules as would best promote the ends proposed. 
The Credo, Pater IS'oster, and the standard Latin hymns, 
committed to memory, with no idea of their meaning, 
constituted the main part of school duty. The effort 
of the monkish teachers was as much directed to the 
exclusion of such knowledge as did not directly sup- 
port their views and authority, as it was to promulgate 
that of the opposite kind. 

The school did little or nothing to banish ignorance 
from the people. Science was interdicted by the Chm-ch 
as opposed to religion. "For many centuries," says 
Hallam, " to sum up the account of ignorance in a word, 
it was rare for a layman, of whatever rank, to know 
how to sign his name." 



SYSTEMS OF EDUCATIO]^ COMPARED. 1^1 

As with tlie Chinese, the monkish system of educa- 
tion demanded a blind acceptance of authority, and it 
was nearly as fatal to human progress. For nearly a 
thousand years the human intellect was kept in a state 
of vassalage. The improvement of the masses, which 
characterizes modern civilization, scarcely commenced 
until the shackles of monasticism were removed, through 
successful insurrection and revolution. 

The baleful effects of the old education long con- 
tinued after the system in which it had its origin passed 
away. Memorizing went on with a simple change in 
the objects upon which it was exercised, and authority 
was still invoked, although authority of a different kind. 

English Schools. — In the English public schools, the 
memorizing process has always maintained a consider- 
able foothold. The classic languages were made the 
basis of culture, and these languages were taught through 
the grammar. Pupils were required to commit to mem- 
ory an almost endless number of paradigms, rules, and 
exceptions, and they were taught to obey implicitly the 
authority of grammar and dictionary. This exercise 
was varied by obliging the pupil to write Latin verses, 
in which the only excellence sought and required was 
that the words should be properly chosen in regard to 
quantity, so that the work would scan, no attention 
whatever being paid to the thought which the words ex- 
pressed, and frequently it was not even required that 
the words should form correct sentences. 

The prevalence of the mechanical method in English 
education may be inferred from the large number of 
endowed grammar-schools. According to both usage 
and law, the name grammar-school is made to signify a 



172 PRINCIPLES AND PEACTICE OF TEACHING. 

scliool in wliicli the Greek and Latin languages are the 
only branches of instruction. Up to the time of the 
Reformation, the grammar-school was the only school in 
existence in England ; and to this day, among endowed 
or public schools of all varieties, the grammar-school 
holds a position of preeminence. 

Geounds of Defense. — In our own schools the mem- 
orizing process still lingers, and teachers require the 
pupil to recite the text verhatiin. He may catch the 
thought contained in the words, or he may not ; the text 
he must get. The grounds upon which this course is 
defended are as follows : 

It fixes the attention upon the lesson, and thereby 
induces habits of attention; it trains the memory; it 
enables the teacher to judge whether study has been 
faithfully performed ; it furnishes an excellent exercise 
in language, both in regard to the structure of sentences 
and the use of words ; and even if the subject is too 
difiicult to be understood, it may be well to have it lodged 
in the memory, ready for use when the mind is so far 
developed as to comprehend it. 

Let us examine these reasons in detail. 

^'Securing Attention^ — The primary attention which 
should always be fixed on thoughts, by this process is 
fixed on the words, leaving the thought to take care of 
itself. This word-food does not conduce to mental 
growth. By thus using chaff in the place of substance, 
the mind is starved and stunted, and its future growth 
becomes impossible. It busies itself henceforth with 
petty and puerile matters, and loses its power to grasp 
ennobling thoughts. 



SYSTEMS OF EDUCATION COMPARED. 173 

" Training the Memory. ^^ — Wq have already seen 
that the retentive powers are best cultivated by associ- 
ating each new idea with something of its kind, so that 
it may be retained simply because of its relations, thus 
relieving the mind of the vast strain which would be 
put upon it without this association. The process in 
question tends to cultivate arbitrary memory. "When 
this power is unnecessarily developed, it absorbs much 
of the vital force, cumbers the mind with unrelated and 
often useless matter, and effectually prevents the higher 
and better cultivation of the retentive powers through 
association. 

^^ Judgment of Study T — By means of genuine study, 
whether directed to objects or books, the mind gets pos- 
session of real knowledge. The true test of study is 
the possession of this knowledge. The mere recitation 
of the words of the book is no truthful standard by 
which to judge of real study. It may decide upon the 
faithfulness with which the words are reproduced, but 
no opinion can be formed in regard to the understand- 
ing of the thought until such thought is fully expressed 
in the language of the pupil. 

" Cultivation of Language^ — The true mastery of 
language consists in the ability to use language with 
correctness and facility, and this ability comes from 
practice alone. Committing to memory the verbal con- 
struction of others can aid a pupil very little in acquir- 
ing the power to construct for himself. By relying upon 
the book for the language in which he clothes his 
thoughts, he is unfitted for original expression, just as 
the constant use of crutches would unfit him for the 
free and vigorous use of his limbs in walking. 



174 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 

'^Future UseP — The claim that it is well to fill the 
mind with the forms of knowledge, that cannot be un- 
derstood or intelligently assimilated nntil some future 
time, is only paralleled in absurdity by the claim that 
the stomach of a child should be filled with food that 
can be digested only when he becomes an adult. This 
claim is equally absurd when examined from another 
point of view. The words remembered are not knowl- 
edge, and they can be transmuted into knowledge only 
when the thought which they express is fully under- 
stood. Even to a future understanding of the subject, 
the possession of the words would be rather a hinder- 
ance than a help, by fixing the attention upon form in- 
stead of sense. 

"We thus see that the practice of memorizing the 
text is utterly indefensible upon any ground of philoso- 
phy, and that it remains in our schools as an evidence 
of the persistence of evil practices, long after the occa- 
sion which gave them birth has passed away. 

The Study of Books. — After the revival of learn- 
ing which followed the invention of printing, books, 
which before had been monopolized by the few, came 
into general use. In them was preserved all the wis- 
dom of the ages which had passed. This wisdom was 
eagerly sought for, with an interest that was only inten- 
sified by the previous privation. In the process of time, 
the reaction against the monopoly of learning by the few 
was carried to an extreme, and books became almost 
objects of worship, and were at once made the basis of 
education. 

Ideas of what Constitutes an Educated Man. — It 



SYSTE3JS OF EDUCATION COMPARED. I75 

soon came to pass that an " educated man " meant one 
who had a plethoric knowledge of ancient lore, rather 
than one who had full possession of his faculties, and 
who could perform with' ability all the duties of life. 
In popular estimation, the pedant who could repeat 
chapter and verse from old authors, or recite from the 
original of Homer or Horace, was a profound scholar, even 
though he had as little practical sense as Scott's Dominie 
Sampson. On the other hand, the man who had ability 
to construct a machine which would emancipate millions 
of men from an unprofitable toil, or one capable of man- 
aging the affairs of State, so as to preserve peace, secure 
the rights of all the people, and stimulate a nation to a 
higher state of civilization, was not an educated man, 
unless he could construct and scan Latin verse, and de- 
cide, off-hand, obscure points of Greek etymology. 

This Worship of Boohs has continued until the 
present day, and has tended greatly to vitiate our whole 
system of instruction. In most of the schools in this 
country, instruction is very largely confined to recita- 
tions in certain text-books. The question in regard to 
proficiency is not whether the pupil understands arith- 
metic, but whether he has been through with Smith's 
or Jones's arithmetic. The lessons assigned are not 
definite topics to be studied and mastered, but a certain 
number of pages to recite ; and, in the examination, the 
success or failure of the pupil usually has been deter- 
mined by his ability to reproduce an author, and not by 
his ability to demonstrate the subject. 

Evils resulting fronx Abuse of Boohs. — The first 
evil result of the abuse of books is that this process of 
study, having no basis in experience, gives to the stu- 



176 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 

dent apparent ratlier than real knowledge ; and, while 
it may satisfy his appetite for the moment, it contributes 
very little to mental development. The knowledge 
gained is apprehended rather than comprehended, and 
there is a constant tendency to accept words, without 
looking for the thought which the words represent. 

The knowledge gained from books is, at best, second- 
hand ; and although indispensable to a full education, yet 
the same material, gained at first-hand from actual in- 
vestigation, not only will make a much deeper impres- 
sion, but will lead to a closer examination and a more 
profound knowledge. 

By relying exclusively upon books, the habit is 
formed of accepting authority without question — a habit 
fatal to the cultivation of self-reliance and mental prog- 
ress. The first effort of the mind is to observe, and, 
next, to understand. The process of understanding in- 
cludes the most careful examinations and comparisons 
at every step of progress ; and this process is entirely 
subverted by the exclusive lesson-reciting method. 

The Place of Text-Books. — We have already seen 
that the child's first knowledge comes from things, and 
through the senses. Before he enters school he has 
gained a large amount of knowledge from the external 
world. The first school-work should be to increase his 
power of observation, and to arrange the results in sys- 
tematic order. "When the objects of the fields and the 
streets, and the phenomena wdth which he is in daily 
contact, are well-nigh exhausted, recourse may be had to 
books, and the instruction carried on by this means from 
the known to the unknown. The lessons should be so 
arranged that the book-knowledge will be directly en- 



SYSTEMS OF EDUCATION COMPARED. 177 

grafted upon that gained from experience ; and, just so 
far as books fail in this particular, thej fall short of 
their highest usefulness. 

The Necessity of Text-Books. — In the present con- 
dition of. education text-books are indispensable. They 
are useful as the repositories of knowledge. They sup- 
plement the knowledge gained from experience. They 
arrange knowledge upon the different subjects of inves- 
tigation, and present it in an unbroken series, and in the 
order of its logical relations. They furnish the basis 
by which classes are kept together. They lead the mind 
out into the great unknown, and store it wdth facts that 
cannot be directly known by observation. And, lastly, 
they furnish the crutches upon which multitudes of 
superficial and unqualified teachers are able to plod 
along in the unvarying routine of prescribed work. 

The Projper Use of Text-Books. — Text-books, how- 
ever, should be used as a means, and not as an end. 
They are valuable as embodying the knowledge neces- 
sary for school purposes, and for nothing else. The 
proper study of books is to look through the text to the 
thoughts conveyed ; and study is profitable just in pro- 
portion to the accomplishment of this end. The facts 
and principles derived from books need the same care- 
ful examination and the same close scrutiny as those de- 
rived from the observation of ^Nature. The habits aris- 
ing from this examination and scrutiny form one of the 
most important of all educational ends. 

Increased Demand for Text-Books. — As the cause 
of education advances in the right direction, there will 
doubtless be a call for more rather than less books for 
our schools. Besides the regular treatises in the various 



178 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF TEACHINa. 

brandies of instruction, there Tyill be a demand for larger 
and more complete works upon the sciences, so that ever j 
pupil will have an opportunity to know the exact state 
of human thought on the various topics that occupy his 
attention. At no distant day in the future, an un- 
abridged dictionary and some complete encyclopaedia of 
general knowledge will be considered a necessary part 
of the equipment of every school. 

The Study of Things. — ^When investigation began 
to be made into the nature of the mind's action, it was 
found that the intelligent study of things took prece- 
dence of all other kinds of knowledge. We have al- 
ready shown the relations of this kind of study to men- 
tal development, and we here have only to give a brief 
summary of the advantages to be gained by this course. 

Cultivation of Perception. — In no way can the per- 
ceptive faculties be cultivated so surely as by the study 
of natural objects. Such objects range from the simple 
to the complex, and they are found in almost infinite 
variety. By the study of them the observing powers 
have an ample field for exercise, and the exact stimulant 
necessary to excite them to activity. 

Basis of Experience. — The observation of objects 
and of the phenomena of ]^ature gives a basis of fact 
derived from actual experience which enables the pupil 
to understand his subsequent study from books. From 
his observation of elementary forms, he can understand 
descriptions which involve very complex combinations 
of forms ; and from the observation of the facts concern- 
ing elevation, the flow of streams, and the changes of 
the weather, he can understand the physical geography 



SYSTEMS OF EDUCATION COMPAKED. 179 

and climate of countries which lie can never visit. 
Without primary experience, however, the descriptions 
of these regions, no matter how vivid they might be, to 
him would become a mass of unmeaning words. 

Materials of Thought. — In regard to knowledge it- 
self, this study of things furnishes the mind with the 
materials upon which thought can be expended. It 
gives a solid foundation for all future acquirements; 
and when carried out to its proper extent, this foundation 
is made broad, and entirely adequate for all purposes. 

Experiment and "Work. — The old education was 
regarded as the very antithesis of work. It was only 
after an experience of centuries that the idea began to 
be entertained that one part of education was to fit 
men for the performance of their daily duties ; and not 
until the commencement of the present century were 
there made any provisions in the schools for the special 
training of the working-classes. 

Technical Schools. — The claims of work in the ar- 
rangement of national educational systems, though tar- 
dily and grudgingly recognized, have at length been 
admitted to some degree in most civilized countries. 
Agricultural schools on the general plan of De Fellen- 
berg are quite common ; and in Germany liberal provis- 
ions are made for the support of trade schools, to im- 
mediately f oUow primary instructions, and for technical 
schools of a higher character. In France, also, technical 
education has received conspicuous encouragement. 

Superiority of Educated WorTcmen. — At the Paris 
Exposition of 1867, the manufactured articles from the 
different countries were brought together and compared. 



180 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 

It was found that in nearly every department of indus- 
try, so far as both, design and workmanship are con- 
cerned, the artisans of France and Germany surpassed 
those of England, though the latter had greatly the ad- 
vantage in inherited aptitude and in individual experi- 
ence. This result showed the superiority of educated 
over ignorant workmen, and it stimulated the English 
people to great exertions in the establishment of schools 
for the benefit of their manufacturing operatives. The 
same result has tended materially to extend technical 
schools everywhere. 

Woi'-k in the Kindergarten. — In the kindergarten 
system, it has been shown that all kinds of bodily ac- 
tivity can be turned to good account in the process of 
educating children, and that these activities, beginning 
in spontaneous plays, may be made to glide insensibly 
into profitable work. This work gives mechanical skill, 
and at the same time becomes a means of intellectual 
development. 

The Next Step Demanded. — The next important step 
forward in education is to arrange courses of study for 
the primary and advanced school that shall embody the 
kindergarten principle, and culminate in the skill which 
is now obtained only in the technical schools. In the 
latest revision of the Prussian normal schools, this 
principle has been partially recognized in the introduc- 
tion of two branches of industry — ^gardening and silk- 
culture — as a regular part of the course of instruction. 

The problem in regard to the manner of introducing 
work or industrial art in school is in part solved by the 
experiments made at the Massachusetts Institute of Tech- 
nology, upon the Eussian system of industrial education. 



SYSTEMS OF EDUCATION COMPARED. 181 

Bj this system, the work in wood and iron is analyzed, 
and each department is arranged so as to be tanght in 
classes, the same as other branches of study. The suc- 
cess at the Institute has been very great, and the same 
general methods, carried out in an inexpensive way, will 
be found applicable to common schools. 

Hand and Brain Culture, — The advantages to be 
derived from making hand-culture go along side by side 
with brain-culture may be summed up as follows : 

First: By handling objects, a greater interest is ex- 
cited and a deeper impression is made. As nearly as 
possible, all the senses are aroused to activity, and all 
are brought to bear upon one object and made to con- 
tribute to one result. 

Secondly : The manipulation of materials necessary 
to work leads to a closer investigation in regard to both 
the qualities and the relations of objects, and changes 
vague notions into positive knowledge. It corrects those 
superficial ideas derived from the study of words alone, 
and prevents conclusions from narrow premises. 

Thirdly : It trains the muscles to respond immedi- 
ately to the will, and gives skill in the use of tools, and 
in handling materials. This training and skill may be 
used directly in the work which has furnished the prac- 
tice, or it may be used indirectly in almost any other 
kind of hand labor. 

Fourthly : In acquiring skill, the intellect is excited, 
and this excitement reacts upon the muscles, so that 
skill is more quickly attained. The muscular and the 
intellectual training thus mutually assist each other. If 
a due proportion is maintained between them, neither 
being carried to excess, it is evident that both may be 



182 PRmCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 

acquired at the same time, and that the time spent in 
the acquisition will be less than that required for the 
development of either when the two are separated. 

Fifthly: The dexterity acquired by the hand, in 
fashioning materials into implements, utensils, and or- 
naments, is a never-failing source of delight, and it fur- 
nishes pleasant and profitable occupation, which would 
otherwise be passed in idleness or dissipation. 

General Summary. — The great problem which is 
now set for the solution of teachers is, how to harmo- 
nize the ideas contained in these separate, rival, and ap- 
parently antagonistic systems. That some important 
truth is embodied in each one, is probable from the fact 
that each has its strong advocates, and each has its meas- 
ure of success. To eliminate the distinct principle in- 
volved in each, and to give to this principle its exact 
value, is, at the present time, exceedingly difficult. 

Reversing the order in which these systems have 
been examined, we see, in the bodily activities mani- 
fested in play and work, agencies and forces which may 
be used in educational work. These forces are natural, 
and therefore proper to be used; and the manner in 
which they are constantly obtruded upon our notice 
seems to demand of us a faithful recognition. The ex- 
periments made in this direction have more than cor- 
roborated the a priori conclusions in regard to the use 
of these forces ; and work, as a part of the regular exer- 
cises of school, will, in time, undoubtedly become uni- 
versal. 

These activities must have materials upon which they 
can be spent, and these materials are the things that 



SYSTEMS OF EDUCATION COMPARED. 153 

must be studied. These things will be selected in ref- 
erence to the skill to be acquired in their manipulations, 
the practical value of the knowledge to be gained from 
them, and the character and fitness of the mental de- 
velopment which thej afford. 

The study of books comes in and supplements the 
knowledge gained from the study of things. Under 
the most favorable circumstances, by far the greater 
part of the knowledge which we possess must come 
from the investigation, experience, and reflection of 
others ; and this knowledge must, to a large extent, be 
obtained from books. To exclude books from a school 
course would be to ignore the processes and results of 
civilization. ITot only should books be used, but they 
should be more largely and generally used than at pres- 
ent ; and the only change demanded is, that no attempt 
shall be made to get more out of them than they con- 
tain, or to make them do the work in education which 
can only come from experience in the study of things. 

The proper cultivation of the memory is not only 
desirable, but indispensable. Mental development would 
be impossible if the mind did not have power to retain 
the knowledge it receives. In the study of things it 
has an ample field for exercise ; and when this study is 
supplemented by hand-labor, a much deeper and con- 
sequently more lasting impression is made. The rela- 
tions of things, in the infinite variety of E"ature, furnish 
the foundation for the most perfect development of as- 
sociative memory ; and should any mere verbal exercise 
be considered important, it may be found in committing 
to memory poetry, or poetic prose, in which noble sen- 
timents and truths are embodied in beautiful forms. 



CHAPTER XI. 

PHYSICAL CULTURE. 

Intkoductoey. — It has been well stated that " first 
of all, man is an animal, and that the first requisite of 
success in life is to be a good animal." In this state- 
ment the fact is recognized that, in regard to vital pro- 
cesses, man is subject to the same laws as the lower ani- 
mals, and that the perfection of his manhood depends 
upon bodily health and vigor. A failure to provide for 
physical culture, or to observe the conditions of physi- 
cal well-being, will vitiate all educational processes, and 
render abortive all attempts to reach the highest intel- 
lectual and moral development. 

Opposing Theories, — In the past, two theories have 
been held in regard to physical culture. The one is 
founded upon the notion that there is a natural and in- 
evitable antagonism between the body and the spirit, 
and that the welfare of the latter is in inverse ratio to 
that of the former. The advocates of this theory hold 
that spiritual matters alone are worthy of the attention 
of intelligent beings, and that the highest spiritual good 
is promoted by thwarting natural desires, and by " mor- 
tifying the flesh." By them, a half-developed or dis- 



PHYSICAL CULTURE. 185 

eased body is considered rather desirable than other- 
wise. 

The second theory regards physical culture as the 
principal end of education. It places an undue estimate 
upon the highest muscular development, and it turns all 
the vital forces into this one channel of expenditure. 

The reconciliation of these antagonistic views may 
be found in the higher intelligence which recognizes in 
the body the machinery through which the mind must 
act, and which sees that the perfection of mental action 
must depend upon the perfection of the machinery 
through which it manifests itself. This idea at once 
disposes of the old notion of antagonism, and furnishes 
the standard by which we judge, both of the importance 
and the limits of physical culture. It makes the pos- 
session and preservation of health the most fimdamental 
of all educational ideas, and, at the same time, it shows 
that physical culture should be limited by the demands 
of intellectual and moral culture. 

Kecognizing the intimate relation of body and mind, 
the physical culture demanded by education should have 
for its objects the full growth and perfect nurture of 
the body, the preservation of health and of those con- 
ditions best calculated to promote intellectual and moral 
vigor, and the attainment of strength sufficient for all 
the ordinary exigencies of life. This definition excludes 
the idea that in our educational processes, the vital 
forces should ever be exhaustively turned in the direc- 
tion of muscular development, or that the production of 
athletes is a legitimate object of the schools. 

Factors of Physical Culture. — In the attainment of 
physical weU-being, four distinct factors are to be con- 



186 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 

sidered in education : intelligence in regard to the laws 
of life ; sensibility as to the observance of tliem ; the 
disposition of educational appliances so as to conform to 
them ; and the formation of habits which lead to an un- 
conscious observance of them. In regard to the intelli- 
gence and sensibility, the teacher's work is mostly indi- 
rect, as he has to deal with actions largely beyond his 
control, and has to approach the subject through intel- 
lectual and moral channels. In the disposition of edu- 
cational material, his work is principally advisory, as 
authority in these matters rests with school directors. 
The direct work of the teacher is confined to legitimate 
schoolroom exercises, which tend to the formation of 
proper habits to be observed through life. 

Bcojpe of Instruction. — The full text of instruction, 
necessary to the understanding of the vital processes, 
and how their vigor is to be maintained, is found only 
in the elaborate treatises upon physiology and hygiene. 
In the present work there is space only for a general 
analysis of the topics to be treated, and a few princi- 
ples under each head, for the double purpose of show- 
ing the importance of the subject and of stimulating fur- 
ther inquiry in the same direction. 

Preparation on the part of Teachers. — l^o teacher 
should enter upon his professional work until, from 
study and investigation, he is familiar with physiologi- 
cal and hygienic laws. Such knowledge is much more 
important, both to him and his pupils, than the details 
of arithmetic and grammar. "Without this knowledge, 
he has no key to the solution of the problems which are 
of daily occurrence in school, and his mistakes and 
blunders are liable to be of so serious a nature as to 



PHYSICAL CULTURE. 187 

vitiate his wliole system of teaching. "With this knowl- 
edge, he is able to give such instruction directly in 
formal lessons, or indirectly by a seasonable word of ad- 
vice, as will make a deep and lasting impression. The 
incidental work of a teacher of wide culture and ear- 
nest convictions will form no inconsiderable portion of 
an education of the pupil which leads to an appreciation 
of physical laws, and a habitual obedience to them. 

Food. — The most fundamental agency in the pro- 
motion of physical well-being is food. From food is 
obtained the material necessary for the growth of the 
body, and for the supply of the waste occasioned by 
muscular and mental action. In considering the sub- 
ject, attention should be given to the kinds, the quality, 
the quantity, and the variety of food, and to the manner 
and times of taking it. 

Kinds of Food. — In deciding upon the kinds of 
food best adapted to children, it would be well to follow 
the example of Pestalozzi and Froebel in regard to 
study, and learn of the children themselves. What 
food do they crave ? or. What do they relish ? are ques- 
tions of more importance than. What food do I think 
they need ? The practice of denying to children the 
food which they most crave is a remnant of the old 
asceticism which regarded the gratification of natural 
desires as a sin, and which finds its logical exponents 
in the self-immolated devotees on the banks of the 
Ganges. 

The custom of forbidding sweets and vegetable acids 
are examples in point. Modern physiologists show that 
the almost universal desire of children for these things 



188 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 

is but tlie expression of a universal need, and tliat to 
withhold them will be to the injury of the child. 

It may be stated, as a general principle, that the 
kind of food craved by children is the very one that is 
most needed at the time ; and that we should regard 
with grave suspicion any sanitary system or theory 
which ignores it. 

Limitation. — "While the general principle holds 
good, it does not follow that the ill-regulated desires of 
every child are to be taken as a guide in supplying him 
with food. These desires may have no basis in real 
needs. They may be vicious, from an inherited ten- 
dency, from the results of abnormal excesses, or from 
suppression in his previous experience. These aberra- 
tions, however, are exceptional, and should not be taken 
as an index of normal conditions, nor as a guide to 
proper control. To distinguish between the expression 
of natural needs and abnormal desires will require a 
large experience ; and, in the meantime, it is safer to err 
on the side of liberty than on that of restriction. 

Quality of Food. — The food of children should be 
specially nutritious. "With adults, the special function 
of foods is to repair waste ; with children, it has the 
additional function of promoting growth, and hence it 
needs be more nutritious for the latter than for the 
former. The practice of supplying children with coarse, 
innutritions food, is in every way mischievous. It di- 
minishes the size of the body, or the quality of its tis- 
sues, so that there is less of strength and vigor. It ne- 
cessitates an unnecessary amount of nervous expendi- 
ture in the way of digestion. It retards vital action in 
other directions, and renders both body and mind slug- 



PHYSICAL CULTURE. 189 

gish. It lays so poor a bodily foundation, as to seriously 
limit future physical and mental possibility. 

Examples illustrating this principle may be found in 
every community. The families that are supplied with 
the most nutritious diet are the most active, physically 
and mentally. The ill-fed classes of city or country 
form the lower or inferior stratum of society. The ill- 
fed races are the lower races, and high civilization is 
possible only with a generous diet. 

It is a great mistake to suppose that children, w^hile 
attending school, or while engaged in study, should be 
put npon a low diet. The waste of tissue is much greater 
in mental than in muscular action, and calls for food of 
a correspondingly more nutritious quality. The student 
accustomed to exhausting physical labor, and to the 
food which is specially adapted to muscular waste, may 
need to change his diet when commencing study. His 
changed habits call for a change of food which shall be 
richer in the elements of nerve-tissue, but in no case 
should he choose a diet lower in all the elements of nu- 
trition than the one to which he has been accustomed. 

Quantity of Food. — The quantity of food should 
be ample as well as the quality excellent. The appetite 
of a healthful child is proverbially keen. To promote 
his growth, and supply the waste from his restless activ- 
ity, a large amount of food is demanded. 

In the case of quantity as well as quality, the appe- 
tite of the child should largely govern the supply, and all 
arbitrary restrictions should be avoided. Herbert Spen- 
cer says : " I^ot only is it that the a priori reasons for 
trusting the appetites of children are so strong, and 
that the reasons for distrusting them are invalid, but it 



190 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 

is that no other guidance is worthy of any confidence. 
What is the value of this parental judgment, set up as 
an alternative regulator ? When to ' Oliver asking for 
more ' the mamma or governess replies in the negative, 
on what data does she proceed ? She thinks he has had 
enough. But where are her grounds for so thinking ? 
Has she some secret understanding with the boy's stom- 
ach — some clairvoyant power enabling her to discern 
the needs of his body % If not, how can she safely de- 
cide ? Does she not know that the demand of the sys- 
tem for food is determined by numerous and involved 
causes — varies with the temperature, with the hygro- 
metric and with the electric state of the air, varies ac- 
cording to the exercise taken, according to the kind and 
quality of the food eaten at the last meal, and according 
to the rapidity with which the last meal was digested ? 
How can she calculate the result of such a combination 
of causes % In truth, this confidence with which most 
parents take upon themselves to legislate for the stom- 
achs of their children proves their unacquaintance with 
the principles of physiology. If they knew more, they 
would be more modest. ' The pride of science is hum- 
ble when compared with the pride of ignorance.' " 

Variety of Food. — T^atural or un vitiated relish is a 
fair indication of the food most needed at the time. A 
single kind of food exclusively used soon loses its relish, 
which shows that something is lacking in providing for 
the needs of the system. Usually good relish is a ne- 
cessity to good digestion. The appetite of children is 
keener and more sensitive than that of adults, and while 
it is easily gratified, it more quickly palls upon a monot- 
onous diet. The remark of the countryman that " he 



PHYSICAL CULTURE. 191 

could eat liver for fifty or sixty meals, but would not 
like it for a steady diet," is but the application of tlie 
general law to a particular case. 

An analysis of food sbows that tliere is a great differ- 
ence in the nutritive qualities of the different kinds. 
Some foods are entirely lacking in some of the elements 
necessary to repair the waste of the tissues of the body, 
and if exclusively used, the person starves to death as 
certainly, if not quickly, as though he had been entirely 
deprived of food. In the use of such foods, variety is 
essential to the continuance of life. 

Food should also be adapted to the changes of cli- 
mate. In cold weather an excess of heat-producing 
food is demanded, and in summer this kind of food 
should be reduced to its minimum. To continue the 
same diet in summer that is best adapted to winter is 
to risk the raising of the temperature of the body to 
the fever-point. Persons engaged in manual labor need 
the foods that are rich in muscle-producing properties ; 
while those engaged in study demand foods that con- 
tain a greater proportion of nerve-matter. 

The best foods are those which are best relished by 
a normal appetite, and which contain the greatest num- 
ber of nutritious elements in the proper proportion. 
The three kinds of food which are nearest perfect in 
their constituents are milk, the lean flesh of beef, and 
the entire grain of the wheat. These will sustain life 
longer, without change, than any other foods. 

Caution to he Observed. — The conditions of families 
greatly vary, and the habits of pupils depending upon 
these conditions also vary. Some have nutritious food 
plentiful in supply and agreeable in variety, and their 



192 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 

entire system has a vigorous tone, and tliey are in a con- 
dition to respond to any reasonable demands made upon 
them. Others, on the contrary, are poorly supplied with 
food, and in consequence their nerves lack vigor and 
their muscles strength. To lay the same burden upon 
the latter as upon the former would be an injustice, and to 
bestow praise and censure for attainments and for good 
conduct equally in the two cases w^ould also be unjust. 
Teachers who would deal justly with all, and who would 
reach the highest success, should make themselves fa- 
miliar with the conditions and habits of each individual 
pupil, so that they can make the necessary allowances 
and discrimination. 

Time for Taking Food. — Regularity in eating is an 
important element in the preservation of health. The 
stomach, like the other organs of the body, requires time 
to allow its forces to recuperate, and periods of rest 
should follow periods of activity. If stimulated to con- 
stant activity by the continual presence of food, its 
action becomes languid, and it performs its functions 
imperfectly, deranging the whole economy of the sys- 
tem. 

It is impossible to establish a fixed rule that will de- 
cide for all persons the exact times for eating. The 
following principles, however, seem to be well estab- 
lished, and should serve as a guide in fixing the periods 
for each one : Food should be taken often enough to 
satisfy hunger ; it should be taken regularly and at such 
intervals as will allow ample time for digestion, and the 
full recuperation of the stomach from the effects of its 
activity. Children need food more frequently than 
adults, but with the same regularity. The intervals be- 



PHYSICAL CULTURE. 193 

tween meals will vary with tlie varying conditions of 
climate, occupation, and health. While the practice of 
eating a hearty meal jnst before going to bed is a per- 
nicious one, it is better to take a little food into the 
stomach at that time than to go to bed hungry. Chil- 
dren at school, and especially the younger ones, may need 
to eat before the noon intermission, and a time should 
be assigned them for that purpose ; but the practice of 
eating at any time and at all times should not be per- 
mitted. 

Manner of Taking Food. — The process of eating 
should proceed deliberately. Perfect digestion requires 
perfect mastication. The muscular action necessary to 
perfect mastication stimulates the salivary glands, and 
induces a flow of saliva, which not only lubricates the 
food so that it can be easily swallowed, but which per- 
forms an important office in digestion. Eapid eating 
and insufficient chewing do not induce a sufficient flow 
of saliva, and hence an extra amount of labor is im- 
posed upon the stomach, producing exhaustion and de- 
rangements. 

Miscellaneous Suggestions. — Food should not be 
taken when the body is exhausted by labor, physical or 
mental. A short interval of rest should precede the eat- 
ing, to allow the vital forces to recover their tone, other- 
wise the food lies in the stomach a long time undigested, 
or is rejected altogether. Time should be given for diges- 
tion before work is resumed. Complete digestion de- 
mands vital force ; and if this force is diverted to mus- 
cular or mental action, digestion is retarded or altogeth- 
er ceases. It is better to have a short period of com- 
plete repose after meals, and especially after dinner. 
9 



194 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 

These principles are well understood in regard to horses. 
A man would be considered as lacking in common sense 
who would feed his horse immediately after an exhaust- 
ing drive, or who would put him to hard work or drive 
him rapidly immediately after eating. The same law 
should be heeded in regard to men. Teachers should 
recognize it, and never demand of their pupils exhaust- 
ive mental labor immediately after eating. 

Use of Drinks. — ^Water taken in moderate quanti- 
ties and at proper times is a necessity of existence. It 
moistens dry food so as to render it digestible, and it 
supplies the waste caused by perspiration. The quan- 
tity of drink necessary depends upon the quality of the 
food taken, the general temperature, and the amount of 
the work done. Most writers upon physiology condemn 
the habit of drinking largely at meal-time. If the 
drink is freely mingled with the eating, swallowing is 
performed with insufficient mastication, and without the 
flow of saliva necessary to perfect digestion. If a large 
quantity of fluid is taken into the stomach at the close 
of the meal, the gastric juice is diluted, and digestion 
is retarded, until the extra fluid is absorbed. The rule 
would seem to be moderate drinking at the close of 
meals. 

Frequent drinking at irregular intervals is a habit 
almost as pernicious as that of irregular eating. It an- 
swers to no real need, and should not be permitted. 
Drinking large quantities of ice-water or very cold 
water is pernicious, as it absorbs the heat from the 
stomach, and arrests digestion until the proper tempera- 
ture is recovered. Teachers can easily regulate the 
drinking of pupils when in school. In warm weather 



PHYSICAL CULTURE. I95 

and after violent exercises whidi have caused perspira- 
tion, drink is a necessity. In general tlie pnpils may be 
permitted to drink at stated intervals, depending upon 
the above conditions. Drinking at other times should 
be discouraged, as interfering with the order of the 
school, and as generally injurious to the pupil in the 
formation of habits. This regulation should not be made 
an inflexible rule, for needs must decide in each case, and 
the pupil must be permitted to interpret his own needs. 
Pernicious Drinks. — In this age, when appetite in 
regard to drink is largely indulged, without consideration 
of consequences either to the person or to society, it 
becomes a matter of great moment to know what to 
avoid as well as what to use. It is now well established 
that, in our climate, the habitual use of alcoholic liquor 
as a beverage is hurtful in many ways. It injures the 
person using it by lowering the general tone of the sys- 
tem ; by creating unnatural desires, which increasingly 
demand gratification ; by turning vital forces to almost 
exclusively sensuous ends ; by inducing neglect of the 
culture of the higher powers, and blindness to thrift 
and to domestic and social duties. So great is the train 
of evils which flow from habits of drink, and of so doubt- 
ful a character and of so little moment are the benefits 
which are claimed for it, that we may regard the for- 
mation of such habits as the negation of physical and 
spiritual well-being. The question is one in which edu- 
cators are directly interested. Any system of educa- 
tion would be justly regarded as imperfect that either 
ignored this subject, or left a doubt in the minds of the 
pupils in regard to the degrading tendency of the habit- 
ual use of intoxicating liquors. 



196 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 

The teacher can do much indirectly and incidentally 
toward creating a healthful public sentiment among his 
pupils in regard to this subject. Yery few of the pupils 
who attend our public schools have acquired a taste for 
liquor or a habit of drinking. There seems to be among 
them a natural and well-founded repugnance to drunk- 
enness. By a seasonable word of advice, and by indi- 
rect allusions to the subject, this repugnance may be 
heightened, and the feeling rendered so strong as to be- 
come a safeguard in that critical period of life when 
temptations are strongest. With advanced pupils, more 
direct measures may be pursued. In connection with 
physiology, the effect of alcohol upon the nerves and 
bodily tissues should be fully set forth. In general ex- 
ercises discussing moral questions and the laws of con- 
duct, it should be shown that the formation of vile per- 
sonal habits indirectly affects morals by the bad example 
set, by diminishing the power of the individual to per- 
form his duties, and by the stimulus given to his lower 
propensities. The same habit becomes directly immoral 
by imposing upon the community the burdens of support 
which belong to the individual. The use of alcoholic 
drinks to any extent produces no good, and there is im- 
minent danger that it may produce evil; hence it is 
better to shun it altogether. 

Tobacco. — Although tobacco is not a food, its use 
may be considered in this connection. Like alcoholic 
liquors, it is an artificial stimulant' or narcotic, which, to 
a man in health, is never a benefit, but always an injury. 
Although its use is so common, it answers to no univer- 
sal human need, as is shown by the fact that with women, 
who constitute one-half of the race, its use is very limit- 



PHYSICAL CULTURE. 197 

ed, and is decreasing with, each generation. The habit- 
ual nse of tobacco so deranges the functions of the body 
that it creates a passionate desire, which tobacco alone can 
gratify. It turns certain of the excretions of the body 
away from their proper organs to the salivary glands, 
and ejects them from the mouth. It induces habits of 
filthiness and vitiates the breath, and so becomes an 
ofiense to others. It is an expense which, in many in- 
stances, entails essential privations upon the person or 
family, and in every case diminishes the ability to ex- 
pend for good purposes. Whether considered in its 
relations to the individual, to society, or to posterity, it 
is a foul offense, and in every legitimate way it should 
be discouraged. 

Habits of the Teacher. — Of course, no person ad- 
dicted to the use of strong drink or tobacco should ever 
presume to take upon himself the office of teacher. His 
example, so powerful for evil, will go far to render nu- 
gatory any teaching of his that bears upon moral con- 
duct. It is doubtful, on the whole, whether ignorance 
of the ordinary branches taught in school would not be 
preferable to intelligence accompanied by habits which 
go so far to derange the whole pliysical economy, and 
diminish the possibilities of life. 

The prevalence of this habit in community, and the 
approval given to it by the example of politicians, doc- 
tors, lawyers, and even by ministers of the Gospel, make 
it more imperative upon the teacher to use all the means 
which " JS'ature and Providence have put in his hands " 
to diminish this evil. He may be sure that his teachings 
and influence in this direction will be the true evangels 
of purity and beneficence. 



198 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 

Warmth. — The next agency to be considered as pro- 
moting physical well-being is warmth. The temperature 
of the body must be maintained within certain narrow 
limits, or serious injuries result. As internal heat is the 
result of the action of the vital forces upon food, it has 
already been sufficiently noticed ; but external heat, its 
sources, its degree, and its conditions, need further dis- 
cussion. In climates where the temperature of the at- 
mosphere is nearly uniform, and closely coincides with 
the temperature of the body, this subject needs but little 
attention ; but in a climate like ours, subject to great 
extremes of heat and cold, health, and even the continu- 
ance of life, depends upon our ability to maintain a 
nearly equal temperature in spite of the changes of the 
atmosphere. "We secure this uniformity by means of 
clothing, houses, and artificial processes of heating. 

Clothing. — In summer, clothing is needed to keep 
out external heat, and in winter to prevent the too rapid 
radiation of the heat of the body ; and to perform these 
various uses, it needs to vary in material, quantity, and 
color. Summer clothing should permit the free circula- 
tion of air, and reflect, rather than absorb, heat; and 
for these purposes it needs be thin and of a light color. 
Winter clothing should protect the entire body, and es- 
pecially the extremities, against the cold ; and for this 
purpose it needs be sufficient in quantity, and of a ma- 
terial that is a poor conductor of heat. 

Materials for Clothing. — Experience has shown that 
light cotton and linen fabrics best answer the purposes 
of summer clothing, while thick, dark, woolen fabrics are 
best adapted to winter. "When the fibre of cotton or 
linen is twisted and woven, the fabric becomes a good 



PHYSICAL CULTURE. 199 

conductor of heat ; and when the outside temperature is 
less than that of the body, it always feels cool. In the 
direct rays of the sun, however, it affords poor protec- 
tion ; and with cotton or linen clothing, there should 
always be an accompanying shade. When the fibre of 
these materials is loosely held together between thin 
sheets of fabric, as in quilts, the amount of air contained 
makes it a poor conductor of heat, and protects against 
the cold by preventing the escape of the heat of the 
body. "Wool is a poor conductor of heat, and hence 
forms the best material out of which clothing can be 
made to protect from the cold. Woolen clothing is also 
worn as protection when exposed to great external heat 
or to sudden changes, as in some manufactures. 

Helations of Clothing to Food. — Food is the source 
of internal heat, while clothing is one of the principal 
means by which this heat is conserved and regulated. 
By insufficient clothing heat is wasted, and there follows 
a demand for a greater supply, which in turn demands 
more food. Intelligent farmers understand this prin- 
ciple, and save food by giving their stock proper shelter. 
Persons exposed to the weather in winter will require 
more food than those who are within doors. Children 
thinly clad require most food ; and it so happens that 
often where food is most scanty, most food is demanded. 
To diminish the amount of food, and of clothing at the 
same time, must result in diminished vitality. 

Changes of Temperature. — Sudden changes in tem- 
perature are experienced both by the change of weather 
and by going from a warm room into the cold without. 
When the temperature is suddenly lowered, a chill is 
produced, which closes the pores of the skin, arrests the 



200 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 

insensible perspiration, and throws the excretions of the 
skin to some of the vital organs. This produces the 
derangements which are called colds, and which are so 
often the precursors of more serious and even fatal dis- 
eases. To the end of preserving against chill, great 
care must be taken to make change of clothing conform 
to change of temperature. Adequate outer garments 
should be put on when going from a warm room into 
the cold air, and these should be taken off when coming 
into the room again. During the season of shifting 
conditions of climate, it is better to wear flannel under- 
clothing, which may be a little uncomfortable for the 
warmest days, or parts of the day, but which is almost 
complete protection against sudden chill. 

Sanitary Suggestions. — In winter great care should be 
taken to protect the extremities from the cold. For this 
purpose, adequate under-clothing and thick warm boots 
or shoes are indispensable. Girls usually are clothed 
less warmly than boy^, and in consequence suffer more 
from exposure. This is an evil which should be reme- 
died. When pupils are heated from exercise, they should 
not be permitted to sit down in a draft or in a cold place. 
At the close of an exercise in a cold day, it is safer to 
rest in a warm room, or at once to put on extra clothing. 

The room in which pupils sit at recitation or study 
should have a uniform temperature of about Y0°. Dur- 
ing the periods when all the pupils engage in physical 
exercise, the temperature may be much lower than this. 
Dampness should be avoided. When the clothing is 
wet by exposure to the rain, the pupils should be per- 
mitted to dry it at once, even if the order of the school 
has to be changed for that purpose. 



PHYSICAL CULTURE. . 201 

Houses. — Houses are built for shelter and warmth, 
and their form, structure, and materials, need intelligent 
attention. In the construction of schoolhouses econo- 
my is often carried to the extreme of parsimony. The 
objects which should be considered in their building are 
the health, comfort, and convenience of their occupants, 
and the perfect adaptation of the structure to its uses. 
But these objects are often lost sight of in the effort to 
save expense, and buildings are erected unsightly in ap- 
pearance, flimsy in structure, coarse and rough in finish, 
and affording inadequate protection against the cold. 
Matters of comfort, convenience, and even of health, 
are entirely left out of account, and rooms are erected 
so small as to force pupils into uncomfortable proximity 
to each other, allowing no freedom of movement, and 
providing a very inadequate supply of air. 

Necessary Considerations. — First of all, the school- 
house should be well built, both for the direct benefit 
to the pupils, and for purposes of economy in the long 
run. A building well constructed will cost a httle more 
at first, but it will not need repairs so soon nor so often, 
and it will last much longer than one that has been 
scrimped in quality of materials and workmanship. 
True economy is never conserved by bad work. Walls 
of stone or brick are better than of wood, as they last 
longer, and are cooler in summer and warmer in winter. 
"When the walls are constructed of wood, they need a 
coating of sheathing-paper beneath the weather-boards, 
or an internal coat of plastering, as a protection in ex- 
treme cold weather. The foundation-walls should also 
be built entire and tight, that the floor may be kept 
warm. 



202 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 

The building should be large enough to allow a sep- 
arate seat for each pupil, and perfect freedom of move- 
ment of pupils and classes, so that there need be no in- 
terference with each other. Eoom should also be ample 
for the use of apparatus, for the study of specimens in 
natural history, and for the allowance of separate space 
for the plays of the younger pupils. The room needed 
for air, and the means of heating, are considered under 
the head of Yentilation. 

Light. — In the construction of a schoolhouse, the 
disposition of light is a matter of prime moment. "Win- 
dows should be large or grouped together, so as to afford 
opportunity for broad masses of light and a uniformity 
in all parts of the room. Small windows, placed at reg- 
ular intervals with considerable space between, cause 
alternate bands of light and shade which are distinctly 
visible, and a shifting condition of light painful to the 
eyes. The light from large windows should be brought 
under control by the means of inside blinds which move 
in sections, admitting more or less light, according to 
the brightness of the day, and from any part of the 
window as may be desired. 

Direction of Light. — It is much better to admit light 
upon but one side of the room. If windows are placed 
upon more than one side, they should always be pro- 
vided with blinds which will effectually exclude the 
light upon one side when necessary. Cross-lights, or 
windows at right angles with each other, should always 
be avoided. The light coming to the eye in dif- 
ferent directions, and at different degrees of inten- 
sity, the eye is continually engaged in endeavoring 



PHYSICAL CULTURE. 203 

to adjust itself to incompatible conditions, and in con- 
sequence, its muscles become wearied and its functions 
deranged. 

Windows should never be placed in front of the pu- 
pils. The continual glare of light coming directly into 
the eye, without any chance of mitigation, is both dis- 
agreeable and injurious. The light shines into the eyes 
while the shade is cast upon the book, reversing the 
conditions that are most desirable. 

The seats of the room should be so arranged that 
the light comes in on the left side, in large masses, 
so modified and diffused as not to make deep shad- 
ows. This arrangement will allow the book to be 
illuminated, will keep the eyes in partial shade, and 
will allow the hand to write without an interrupting 
shadow. 

Defective Sight, — ^Want of attention to the proper 
arrangement of light frequently results in defective 
sight on the part of pupils. In a late report from a 
commission appointed to examine the upper schools in 
Germany, it was stated that thirty-six per cent, of the 
students were found to have defective vision, directly 
traceable to the bad management of the lights in the 
schoolroom. This result may come from want of suf- 
ficient light, from too much light, from cross-lights, 
from front lights, and from changing lights. Windows 
are as easily arranged properly as improperly, and the 
only additional expense necessary to secure the proper 
adjustment of lights is that of the interior blinds. Di- 
rect sunlight in the room is very desirable on account 
of health, if the rays can be controlled and softened by 
the use of blinds. 



204 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF TEACniNG. 

Air AND Yentilation. — The ventilation of a room 
includes all the considerations relative to the circulation 
of the air, and to the artificial means of heating. In 
most of the schoolrooms throughout the country little 
or no attention is given to ventilation, and, in conse- 
quence, there is not only a loss in diminished results, 
but a positive injury in the form of various diseases. 
This evil is so formidable, and so nearly universal, that 
it should receive particular attention from teachers and 
all those who have the care of schools. 

Sources of Impure Air. — The great mass of the at- 
mosphere where the winds have free circulation is con- 
sidered pure. The out-door impurities come principally 
from combustion, stagnant water, and from decaying 
vegetable and animal matter; and often considerable 
sections of country are rendered malarious from some 
of these causes. The winds, however, are the great 
purifiers, and injurious gases are usually dissipated 
nearly as soon as generated. Even swampy regions 
would soon be rendered wholesome, were it not for 
the continual supply of malarious matter which they 
furnish ; and as it is, the air is contaminated only for a 
short distance upward. 

In-door Air. — ^In the room, the conditions of the air 
are very different from without. The walls and ceiling 
necessary for protection arrest circulation, and impuri- 
ties accumulate. These impurities, derived from com- 
bustion, and from the breathing and insensible perspira- 
tion of its inmates, consist of carbonic-acid gas and 
animal excretions, both of which are deleterious to 
health even in very small quantities. If breathing in a 
confined atmosphere is continued long enough, carbonic 



PHYSICAL CULTUEE. 205 

acid is generated in sufficient quantities to cause death ; 
and when excretions from insensible perspiration are 
allowed to accumulate to any considerable extent, the 
air becomes so foul and offensive as to be almost un- 
bearable. 

Conditions to he Observed. — The problem to solve 
in ventilation is to secure and preserve an uniform tem- 
perature in all parts of the room, and at the same time 
to secure an amount of circulation of the air that wiU 
preserve its purity. To accomplish these results, advan- 
tage must be taken of forces incident to the heating ; 
and the heating and ventilating apparatus must be so 
combined that the objects may be attained in the most 
effective and economical manner. 

Distribution of Heat. — The heat of a room is dis- 
tributed by the direct radiation from the heated surface, 
and by the circulation of heated air. "With radiation 
alone the supply of heat in the different parts of the 
room is very unequal, and pupils near the stove are un- 
comfortably warm, while those at the greatest distance 
are uncomfortably cold. Heated air rises, and, in a 
room heated by a stove, there is always a current of 
warm air rising by the stove, and corresponding descend- 
ing currents in the cooler parts of the room. By sur- 
rounding a common stove with a jacket of sheet-iron, 
open at the bottom and top, the ascending current of 
hot air becomes more pronounced, the intensity of ra- 
diation is diminished, and the heat is more evenly dis- 
tributed in the room. 

Distribution of Irajpurities. — Air breathed from the 
lungs, in consequence of its high temperature, usually 
rises slightly, but, soon parting with its heat, it falls, 



206 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 

because laden with carbonic-acid gas, which is heavier 
than air. Afterward, by the operation of the law of 
diffusion of gases, it gradually mixes with the rest of 
the air. 

Egress of Air. — ^When openings are made at the 
top of the room, the heat and comparatively pure air 
escapes, and no good arises except in case the room is 
overheated. Openings at the bottom, on the contrary, 
have a tendency to draw off the colder and impure air, 
and will do so, if so arranged that air does not come in 
instead of go out. As the room is always full of air, it 
follows that if air escapes, an equal amount must come 
in. Usually, this supply from without finds its way 
through the crevices of the windows and doors, pro- 
ducing draughts injurious to those exposed to them. 

VentilaUng Arrangement. — To make a successful 
system of ventilation that will give an ample supply of 
air without an unnecessary expenditure of heat, it is 
only needful to observe the foregoing conditions. Let 
the means of heating be a common stove of sufficient 
size. Surround this stove with a jacket of sheet-iron, 
reaching the floor and open at the top. Under the 
stove admit a current of air from without, and at the 
bottom of the room have openings which connect by 
means of boxes or ducts with the chimney. The size 
of the ducts will depend upon the size and number of 
the occupants of the room, and they should be so ad- 
justed as to allow the passage of more or less air ac- 
cording to circumstances. With space in the room that 
gives each pupil 250 cubic feet of air, at least 300 cubic 
feet for each pupil should be admitted every hour. 

Method of Operation. — The fire kindled in the stove 



PHYSICAL CULTURE. 207 

disturbs tlie equilibrium and produces an upward cur- 
rent. This occasions a flow of pure air through the 
cold-air duct at the bottom of the stove, which becomes 
heated in ascending between the stove and its jacket, 
and ascends and spreads out at the top of the room, 
pressing down upon the cooler air beneath. The smoke 
and heat from the stove produce an upward current in 
the chimney-flue, and this occasions a draught through 
the ducts and ventilating registers at the bottom of the 
room. Two forces are thus brought to bear to empty 
the room of its cold air — a pressure from the top and a 
draught from the bottom. If this simple apparatus is 
properly adjusted, the connections perfectly made, and 
the flues of proper size, the ventilation will be ample, 
the heat will b6 evenly distributed, and there will be 
the minimum waste of fuel. 

Cost of Construction. — The three items of expense, 
in the construction of this apparatus, above that of a 
common stove, are the cold-air duct, the ventilating- 
duct connecting with the chimney, and the jacket to 
inclose the stove. Stoves are now constructed with 
reference to this system of ventilation which contain 
within themselves the two features of exterior covering 
and ventilating-duct, and these cost no more than equally 
good stoves of the common kind. This reduces the ex- 
tra expense to the cost of the cold-air duct. Whatever 
may be the expense of a successful system of ventila- 
tion, it will be returned a hundredfold each year in 
the improved health of the pupils. 

Practical Suggestions, — In schools where no pro- 
vision has been made for ventilation, the teacher must 
exercise continual vigilance in regard to the air in the 



208 PRINCIPLES AND PEACTICE OF TEACHING. 

room. The attention given to this matter should be 
regular and systematic, as the air becomes foul by such 
imperceptible degrees that the teacher is unconscious of 
it as far as his own senses are concerned. Coming in 
from without, the impurities are perceived at once. 
The practice of opening the windows at the top, ex- 
cept in case the room gets too warm, is a vicious one. 
The cold air coming in falls at once to the floor, exposing 
the unprotected heads of the pupils to the draughts, and 
producing chills and colds. A better plan is to open 
the window nearest the stove, at the bottom, the cold 
air falling immediately to the floor, and making its way 
to the stove. At the end of each hour the windows 
and doors should be opened a few minutes to allow a 
complete change of air, so that the air in the room shall 
never become very much vitiated. During this process 
the pupils should never be allowed to remain upon their 
seats. By making arrangements for calisthenic exer- 
cises to take place at these times, two important advan- 
tages will be gained — a room filled with pure air and 
increased muscular vigor. 

Direct Muscular Training. — The course of physi- 
cal culture recommended so far has had for its objects 
intelligence in regard to physical laws, the arrangements 
of conditions most favorable to their observance, and 
the formation of habits conforming to them. There re- 
mains the question of how much may be done for direct 
muscular training. That there should be an amount of 
muscular activity, each day alternating with the periods 
of intellectual activity, is obvious from the relations 
which are seen to exist between bodily health and vigor 



PHYSICAL CULTURE. 209 

and correct thinking. Study determines the blood to 
the brain ; exercise draws it to the extremities. In in- 
tellectual exercises nervous energy is concentrated at 
the nervous centres ; in physical exercises it is diffused 
throughout the body. Thought and emotion, when car- 
ried to excess, tend to disturb the functions of the vital 
organs through the action of the sympathetic nerves ; 
muscular activity, when carried to excess, equally dis- 
turbs the vital functions by depriving them of their 
proper amount of nervous stimulus. Exclusive devotion 
to intellectual pursuits, with a corresponding neglect of 
the physical, will reduce the physical powers to their 
minimum, and, reacting, will diminish the intellectual 
powers also. Exclusive devotion to muscular exercise 
will reduce intelligence to its minimum, and, reacting, 
will diminish the physical powers. To a complete de- 
velopment, both are needed ; the one is complementary 
to the other, and each affords a relief from the weariness 
of the other. In schools, which from their very nature 
give prominence to intellectual pursuits, there should be 
sufficient attention given to physical exercise to preserve 
the proper balance of vital powers. The direct means 
at command to accomplish this purpose are calisthenic 
exercises, and the training for work. 

Calisthenics. — ^Within the past few years calisthenics 
have been introduced into schools, and among the 
good results may be enumerated the following : The 
weariness of long-continued sitting is dispelled ; the 
nervous restlessness which so often disturbs the order 
of the school is allayed ; headaches and other forms of 
nervous aihnents are diminished ; the tendency to dis- 
tortion incident to sitting in one position is overcome ; 



210 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 

a strong, free, and vigorous movement is substituted 
for tlie listless shambling or the nervous jerking which 
are characteristics of schools where intellectual work is 
pushed to the utmost and exercise neglected ; a greater 
amount of intellectual work is secured, and grace of at- 
titude and gesture is developed. 

Kinds of Exercise. — The kinds of exercise best 
fitted for public schools are the free calisthenics, as 
given in any of the manuals upon this subject. They 
include movements of nearly all the muscles of the body 
arranged in regular rhythmic exercises for class drill. 
Particular attention is given to the exercise of the mus- 
cles of the arms and chest, so as to give the fullest play 
to the lungs. When possible, the calisthenics should be 
accompanied by music, either vocal or instrumental, so 
that the rh3rthm may be fully preserved. In default of 
music, the simultaneous movement may be obtained by 
counting. 

Calisthenic Apparatus. — For the purposes enumer- 
ated, little apparatus is needed, and in public schools 
generally the arrangement of the room is such that ap- 
paratus cannot be used. Even with ample room, simple 
apparatus is best for school purposes. Wooden dumb- 
bells, light clubs, wands, rings, and bags of grain not 
exceeding four pounds each, afford all the exercise that 
is demanded, and the variety necessary for keeping up 
the interest. By means of these, physical culture is 
obtained through a series of light and rapid movements, 
rather than by the heavy gymnastics which require a 
great expenditure of muscular force ; and the ends at- 
tained are health and activity, rather than the greatest 
possible physical strength. 



PHYSICAL CULTURE. 211 

Time Given to Exercise. — Exercise should be fre- 
quent and not of long duration. In primary rooms it 
may with propriety be made to alternate with each of the 
recitations. In the higher departments and in ungraded 
schools, twice each session, about five minutes should be 
given to exercise, the time varying with the conditions 
of the school. In no case should it be continued to the 
point where it exhausts instead of invigorates. 

Caution to 'be Observed. — The teacher should exer- 
cise a careful supervision over the calisthenics, and no 
pupil should be compelled or permitted to take part in 
them when ill, or when there is a liability that the exer- 
cise will produce illness. The whole subject of physi- 
cal exercise has often fallen into disrepute from want of 
care in this direction. 

Hest. — Observation and experience show that, after 
an expenditure of vital force, time is needed to replace 
the elements used, and to restore the organs exercised 
to their full vigor. This interval for the recuperation, 
which we term rest, is as important an element of human 
weU-being as exercise. The law seems to be that every 
period of activity, whether physical or intellectual, 
should be followed by a period of rest. When activity 
has continued to a point where rest is clearly demanded, 
we are said to be tired, and rest easily restores vigor. 
When activity continues beyond this point, vital force 
is derived from elements which enter into the composi- 
tion of the organs themselves, and we become weary — a 
state which ordinary rest will not redress. Expenditure 
continued to the point of excessive weariness so de- 
stroys the vigor of the system, that there, frequently 



212 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 

happens a sudden failure of the nervous functions 
throughout the body, which we call paralysis. 

Best of Change. — When one set of muscles or facul- 
ties has become tired from use, a sense of rest is expe- 
rienced by bringing another set into action, provided 
the aggregate vitality at command has not been exhausted. 
This is the rest of change or variety of employment. It 
is the method of relief from the dreariness of monoto- 
ny, and one of which the teacher should take advantage 
in the arrangement of courses of study and daily pro- 
grammes. Upon this principle the study of natural 
history is a rest from the study of mathematics, and cal- 
isthenics is a rest from all intellectual activity. 

Rest of the Attention. — ^When the attention is fixed 
upon one subject for some time it becomes weary in one 
direction ; and if given to a series of subjects, though 
each may afford a relief to the other, in time the whole 
stock of vital energy which is at the service of attention 
is exhausted, and the attention itseK needs rest. The 
power of sustained attention varies with age and de- 
velopment. Children soon weary of the effort to ^n 
their attention, and for this reason their lessons should 
continue but a few minutes at a time upon one subject, 
nor for any considerable time upon a variety of sub- 
jects. Calisthenics do not constitute a means of rest 
for the attention when tired, as they themselves require 
attention. The proper rest for wearied attention in 
children is spontaneous plays, and in students or busi- 
ness-men is the entire change which comes in the sum- 
mer vacation by hunting, fishing, camping out, and visits 
to the sea or mountains. 

Complete Mest. — Every human being has a certain 



PHYSICAL CULTURE. 213 

amount of vital force which he can spend in activities 
physical or intellectual, beneficent or vicious, in work 
or in plaj. If spent in one direction it cannot be spent 
in another. All kinds of activity are exhaustive, though 
not in equal degree. Exhaustive physical labor prevents 
any considerable mental activity, and exhaustive men- 
tal labor prevents any considerable physical activity. 
Dissipation, whatever form it may assume, is not only 
the waste of vital forces, so that no good purpose is 
possible, but it is usually the derangement of the vital 
functions diminishing the supply of force. "When the 
stock of vitality at command is exhausted, no matter by 
what means, complete rest is demanded in the form of 
perfect quiet. 

Daily Rest or Sleep. — By the constitution of human 
beings there seems to be an amount of extra vital force 
at command each day ; and when the day ends, the force 
has been expended in some form — wisely in conserving 
and promoting human interests, or unwisely in dissipa- 
tion by which forces are wasted, or in indolence by which 
they are expended in the morbid action of the organs 
themselves. This daily expenditure calls for the most 
perfect form of rest — sleep. Dm-ing sleep all the pow- 
ers are recuperated, and vital force is laid up for the 
next day's use. Eegular daily undisturbed sleep is a 
necessity to well-being ; and study, work, business, and 
play, should be arranged so as not to diminish its hours, 
or in any way to interfere with it. 

Amount of Sleep. — The amount of sleep necessary 
to the full recuperation of the vital powers depends upon 
several conditions, among which are the constitution of 
the person, the nature of the employment, and the de- 



214 PKINCIPLE3 AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 

gree of the exhaustion. To prescribe the same mimber 
of hours of sleep for all would be as absurd as to pre- 
scribe the same amount of food for all. When tired 
but not weary, the proper amount of sleep refreshes the 
person, and restores his powers to full vigor. Intellect- 
ual activities in an especial manner call for plenty of 
sleep, and pupils in school should be instructed never 
to let any supposed necessity of study interfere with 
their natural amount of sleep. Nothing is more detri- 
mental to the well-being of a student than attempted 
study when sleep is needed. Excessively late and exces- 
sively early hours are alike injurious. Besides the in- 
jury resulting from the loss of sleep, study at late hours 
bears but little fruit in the way of mental improvement. 
One hour of study in full vigor is worth six hours when 
the mind is haK asleep. 

JRest from Weariness. — ^When activity is long con- 
tinued, without adequate intervals of rest, there results 
a general exhaustion, shown by a weariness which sleep 
does not overcome. The only remedy for this is perfect 
rest — an entire cessation from activities that demand at- 
tention. In the complicated arrangement of business 
affairs there often comes a continued strain upon the at- 
tention, and an abnormal expenditure of vital force, 
which exhausts not only the surplus stock, but all that 
the organs can yield. The redress of the weariness that 
ensues is only found in perfect rest, which must be taken 
to the full extent of restoration of vigor, or the vital func- 
tions will be permanently impaired or altogether cease. 

A knowledge of rest in its several degrees and in its 
relations to activities is of vital importance to teachers. 
Ignorance of the laws which govern the redress of vi- 



PHYSICAL CULTURE. 215 

tality often lead to absurd practices. In the olden time, 
students in the higher institutions of learning were 
obliged to get up at five o'clock in the morning, at all 
seasons of the year, to attend chapel exercises, observing 
divine worship by the disobedience of divine law. 
Teachers often stimulate pupils to an undue amount of 
study, by assigning too long lessons, and by censure ex- 
pressed or implied when the lesson is not learned. In 
schools where the high-pressure principle in regard to 
study prevails, the most ambitious and delicately organ- 
ized students are not uncommonly driven so hard that 
their powers of mind fail, and they either sink into pre- 
mature graves, or pass the remainder of their lives the 
mere wrecks of what they might have been. In assign- 
ing too long lessons, the mistake of the teacher arises 
from judging of the capacity of the pupil by his own, 
and of expecting from children an amount of work 
which would tax the capacity of adults. When pupils 
have attained an age that gives them the power of in- 
dependent study, the direction which should be given 
them is : " Give such time to your lessons as you can 
without encroaching upon your sleep, or hours of nec- 
essary recreation, and the amount of study required 
shall be arranged accordingly." 



CHAPTEE XII. 

ESTHETIC CULTURE. 

Nature of Esthetics. — In intellectual training the 
end is to ascertain the true — the true in the facts, rela- 
tions, and laws of both the physical and mental worlds. 
In morals, the end sought is the good, which upon one 
side expresses the true in human relations, and upon the 
other converts it into action. In aesthetics, the end 
sought is the beautiful, which is the true in the relations 
of objects and their qualities as they affect the senses. 
The true includes all phenomena; the good relates to 
human conduct ; and the beautiful refers to objective 
relations which afford pleasure. The three are so united 
that the course which most certainly secures either is 
essential to the highest success in all, and that sub- 
stantial attainment in each is necessary to the highest 
attainment in the others. 

^Esthetic culture includes both a perception of the 
beautiful as it exists, and also the ability to arrange ele- 
ments in such a manner as to produce the beautiful. It 
is not only an appreciative, but a creative power. Its 
highest ends are attained through the imagination, and 
it furnishes one of the principal means by which the 



^ESTHETIC CULTURE. 217 

imagination is cultivated. The sestlietic sense wliicli we 
call taste, wliile greatly differing in individuals, can al- 
ways be improved by systematic training. 

Standard of Beauty. — In regard to tlie origin and 
nature of beauty, and the standard by whicli it is to be 
judged, there are two general theories. One, known as 
the intuitional, claims that in the spiritual world there 
is an absolute standard of beauty ; that Nature is a reali- 
zation of this standard to a greater or less degree ; and 
that the human mind has an intuitive perception of 
the correspondence between the material and the spirit- 
ual whenever it occurs, and responds to the ideal stand- 
ard. As natural forms approximate to the ideal stand- 
ard, they are said to be beautiful ; as they fall short in 
this respect, they are regarded as ugly. 

RuskirCs Views. — Ruskin takes this view of the 
origin and nature of beauty, as is seen in the following 
extract ; " 'Now I may state, that beauty has been ap- 
pointed by the Deity to be one of the elements by 
which the human soul is continually sustained; it is, 
therefore, to be found in all natural objects ; but in order 
that we may not satiate ourselves with it, and weary of 
it, it is rarely granted to us in its utmost degrees. When 
we see it in those utmost degrees, we are attracted to it 
strongly, and remember it long, as in the case of singu- 
larly beautiful scenery or a beautiful countenance. On 
the other hand, absolute ugliness is admitted as rarely 
as perfect beauty ; but degrees of it, more or less dis- 
tinct, are associated with whatever has the nature of 
death and sin, just as beauty is associated with what has 
the nature of virtue and of life. 

" What JSTature does generally is sure to be more or 
10 



218 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 

less beautiful ; wliat she does rarely will either be very 
beautiful or absolutely ugly ; and we may again easily 
determine, if we are not willing in such a case to trust 
our feelings, which of these is indeed the case, by the 
simple rule that, if the occurrence is the result of the 
complete fulfillment of a natural law, it will be beauti- 
ful ; if of the violation of a natural law, it will be ugly." 

Experience Theory. — The other theory makes beauty 
the result of experience. In infancy, the beneficent 
gives pleasure, the harmful gives pain ; the accustomed 
yields all needed ideas and gives pleasure ; the unaccus- 
tomed inspires vague terrors and gives pain. A little 
higher in development, variety furnishes the mind with 
food and gives pleasure, while monotony starves it and 
gives pain. 

In some combinations of qualities or of objects, the 
impressions harmonize with the human organism, and 
give pleasure ; in others, they do not so harmonize, and 
give pain. For example : intense light is not in har- 
mony with the structure of the eye, and pain is caused 
either by its admission or by the effort to keep it out. 
In like manner, cross-lights in a room produce contin- 
ually varying degrees of light, so that the muscles of the 
iris become weary in endeavoring to adjust the internal 
structure to the outward conditions. So in color, cer- 
tain combinations respond to the structure of the eye 
and are restful, while others are at variance with this 
structure and are painful. In all these cases, that which 
gives pleasure we call beautiful, and that which gives 
pain, ugly ; the internal emotion passing judgment upon 
the external object. 

In a still higher state of development, intelligence 



ESTHETIC CULTURE. 219 

reacts upon the senses and corrects the first vague no- 
tions. The harmful has been subjugated. Qualities 
are considered apart from objects. The harmonies be- 
tween the external and internal are more clearly seen. 
The ideas which l^ature represents are more fully com- 
prehended. The imagination is busy in constructing 
new ideals. In consequence, notions concerning beauty 
continually broaden, become more discriminative, and 
exercise a more potent influence upon the emotions. 

Training in Art, — Efforts to represent the beauti- 
ful are of great assistance to its full appreciation. The 
steps of representation are first imitation, and then an 
analysis and a rearrangement of the elements into new 
combinations. By this process we become more thor- 
oughly acquainted with Nature ; see more clearly the 
typical forms to which the real forms more or less im- 
perfectly approximate ; and are able to improve upon 
^Nature by representing the typical rather than the real 
forms. This is the realization of the beautiful in human 
production, and is pure art. 

Before considering the steps necessary to be taken 
in aesthetic culture, it is necessary to examine the ele- 
ments which constitute beauty somewhat in detail. 

FoEM. — One of the most fundamental elements of 
beauty is form. Observations of ^Nature give us forms 
in almost infinite variety and combination. We see 
daily the blue dome of the heavens and the green man- 
tle of the earth, and nightly the stars in their proces- 
sion, and each of these gives pleasure : not because of 
their known utility, but because they form a j^art of the 
established order of things, to which we have become 



220 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 

accustomed. Mystery was one source of pleasure af- 
forded by the contemplation of the starry heavens, but 
the pleasure becomes even greater, as the mystery is 
resolved into majestic law, which 

" Extends through all extent, 
Spreads individual, operates unspent." 

Analysis of Form. — Descending from the general 
to the particular, the features of a landscape and the 
special forms of vegetation give pleasure, and are said 
to be beautiful. At the same time a discrimination is 
made. A rugged landscape, unfit for human occu- 
pancy, would, at first, scarcely appear beautiful, be- 
cause it is associated with no pleasurable emotions. 
The beauty of such scenery is appreciated only by 
those who have passed from the perceptive into the re- 
flective state. So a tree gnarled and twisted by the 
wind is seen to poorly represent the typical tree which 
would grow up under the most favorable circumstances. 
To a higher culture, however, the very twisted appear- 
ance becomes an additional element of beauty, as it gives 
evidence of the operation of majestic forces, the contem- 
plation of which is a stimulus and a pleasure to the mind. 

GeometriG Divisions. — Still further analysis sepa- 
rates form into its geometric elements, the main divis- 
ions of which are straight and curved lines. In ^Nature, 
straight lines are seldom presented, while curved lines 
are found in almost infinite variety, and it is equally 
true that curved lines usually give greater pleasure than 
straight ones, and are considered essential elements of 
beauty. A reason for the greater pleasure afforded by 
the curved line may be found in the fact that it is more 



J5STHETIC CULTURE. 221 

restful to tlie eje. In forms made up of straight lines 
there is a monotony of vision along the single line to 
the end, where there is an abrupt transition, causing a 
sudden change in the muscular movements of the eje ; 
while in curved lines and sui-f aces there is a continual 
change which avoids monotony, and makes a complete 
transition, as far as direction is concerned, by impercep- 
tible degrees ; the gradual change producing a more 
j)leasurable feeling than the abrupt one. 

Forms used in Art. — In the representation of beau- 
tiful forms, the first necessary step is the exact repro- 
duction of natural forms as they appear. ]^ext above 
this is the representation of natural forms so modified 
as to adapt them to industrial pursuits, when they are 
said to be conventionalized. The next step is the reali- 
zation in art of the ideals which ^Nature suggests, or 
the separation of natural forms into their geometric ele- 
ments, and the recombining of these new elements into 
essentially new designs, known as geometric designs or 
arabesques. In all these cases the forms of art give 
pleasure, as they faithfully represent Nature ; as they 
idealize xsTature by more fully realizing the idea which 
JS'ature suggests ; or as they make complex designs which 
are hints of a perfection not fully experienced. 

Nature the Basis of Art. — In most of the works of 
man the ideas of form seem to be directly derived from 
IS'ature. In one style of building, ascending through a 
series of changes, from the rude wigwam of the JS^orth 
American Indians to the stately groined arches of the 
Gothic cathedrals, the general idea of form is evidently 
suggested by the embowering branches of forest-trees. 
In another style of building, ascending from the under- 



222 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 

ground abodes of the Borean races, through the rock- 
hewn cities of Arabia and India, and through the mas- 
sive temples of Egypt, to the light and graceful struc- 
tures of the classic Greeks, the leading idea of form 
seems derived from that of natural caverns ; and all the 
changes which art has made in this long series are but 
modifications of this idea. 

Almost any department of human art or industry 
furnishes additional examples of artificial forms grow- 
ing directly out of natural ones. jN'orman castles, with 
their thick buttresses and stout turrets, were very faith- 
ful representations of mountains, crags, and rocks ; and, 
as they are seen to crown the lofty summits along the 
Ehine, they constitute so harmonious a part of the land- 
scape that they seem a part of the rocks upon which 
they stand, rather than the work of man. The Sara- 
cenic minarets and the Oriental pagodas, w^ith their 
slender shafts and overhanging roofs, were developed 
in regions where the palm-tree is the typical form of 
vegetable life, and very faithfully the natural form is 
represented in the art structures. The lotus, a common 
product along the Nile, appears conventionalized upon 
all the monuments and ornamentations of the Egyp- 
tians ; and the acanthus, a plant of Southern Europe, 
furnishes the idea for the exquisite capital of the Corin- 
thian columns of the Greeks and the Romans. 

Proportion". — The next element which enters into 
our ideas of beauty is that of proportion. In the full 
knowledge of an object, which results from examina- 
tion, there are included ideas of use and adaptation to 
use. One of the elements of adaptation is size — and, 



AESTHETIC CULTURE. 223 

from tlie correspondence of size to use, of the size of 
parts to their respective uses and to each other, and 
from the relative size of objects when compared with 
other objects, we get ideas of proportion. In natural 
forms these ideas are derived from the most perfect 
specimens in each department. For example, in the 
typical form of each species of trees there are certain 
fixed relations in size between trunk and branches 
which we call good proportion. When this relation is 
disturbed, we feel that the tree is imperfect and distorted, 
or, in other words, the parts are out of proportion. 

Proportion in Architecture, — In architecture there 
are certain relations in the length, breadth, and height 
of a building which we caD. good proportion ; and, while 
there is room for variation within proper limits, to 
transcend these limits is to occasion a sense of incon- 
gruity in those who see it. A theory has been advanced 
that true proportion in building, in its effects, is anala- 
gous to that of the natural scale in music ; that corre- 
spondences in waves of light, as well as in waves of 
sound, produce harmony. In the cons traction of rooms 
there is the same necessity for the proper adjustments 
of the different dimensions, so that the greatest satisfac- 
tion may be produced. A square room gives a sense 
of incompleteness ; when the room is too low, the ceil- 
ing seems to restrain us from full freedom of action, 
and when the room is too high the same feehng of re- 
straint seems to come from the walls. 

Element of Safety. — Ideas of proportion are often 
closely associated with safety. From experience, we 
get certain notions of the strength of materials, and of 
the effect of forces ; and where we see an apparently in- 



224 PEINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 

adequate support of a visible weight, or of a known 
strain, we have a sense of insecurity whicli determines 
onr ideas of proportion in this particular case. A good 
example of this feeling is illustrated in the construction 
of bridges. The old massive stone structures are known 
to be perfectly safe, and are everywhere considered in 
good proportion and beautiful. Iron bridges, on the 
contrary, though we may know that they are just as 
safe, appear out of proportion and ugly. For this rea- 
son E.uskin says that true architecture demands that 
there shall be visible supports to all parts of the build- 
ing ; that while real supports, as iron rods, may be con- 
cealed, there must be entirely adequate apparent sup- 
ports in the form of columns and buttresses. 

General Ideas of Proportion. — This idea of propor- 
tion seems also to pervade the whole world of thought, 
and everywhere the mind is satisfied only by a proper 
adjustment of means to ends, and of cause to effect. 
When there is a great disparity in these regards the 
effect is grotesque, and is a legitimate source of mirth. 
Hood's comic illustrations were often of this character, 
deriving their fun from patent incongruities. One of 
these represents a small pony drawing a wagon crowded 
with people up a steep hill, and is designated " Drawing 
Lots ; " and another represents an immense dray-horse 
apparently straining himself to the utmost in drawing a 
small baby-cart, under the title of " Anti-Climax." The 
caricatures of the comic papers, preserving the likeness 
of a person but exaggerating some peculiarity of feature, 
and the familiar Latin quotation, ^^ jparturiunt monies et 
nascitur ridiculus mus^^ afford additional illustrations 
of the same principle. 



ESTHETIC CULTURE. 225 

Ideas of Projportion applied. — So universal is this 
idea of proportion, and so necessary to the proper ad- 
justments of thought an.d action, that it should be con- 
sidered in every department of school-work. Upon it 
are founded successful courses of study and daily pro- 
grammes. It can be specifically cultivated in methods 
of study, and in the manner in which work is performed. 
Physically, ideas of proportion are developed by the 
proper spacing of letters and words, by adapting the 
size of letters and figures to the place where they are 
written, as upon the slate or blackboard, and by the 
methodical arrangement of all written work. In abstract 
matters, the same ideas may be developed by the proper 
division of time into periods of work and rest, and by 
giving to each study its proper amount of attention. 

Unity. — Another important element of beauty is 
unity. The most fundamental idea connected with 
every object is its use, not merely as contributing to 
the material welfare of man, but as occupying its appro- 
priate place in relation to other objects. "When an ob- 
ject is specially adapted to its uses, and all its parts, 
while adapted to their special uses, directly contribute 
to the general use of the whole, or when several ob- 
jects are so related that they all contribute to one gen- 
eral use or design, in this adaptation to use we have the 
idea of unity. 

Example in Nature. — A tree is beautiful from its 
graceful form, the proportion of its parts, and the un- 
dulating movement of its branches ; but we are led to 
a closer observation and a higher appreciation of this 
beauty, when we see that the stalk is made strong that 



226 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 

it may resist the wind ; that the branches divide and 
sub-divide so as to give support to almost innumerable 
leaves ; that the leaves are broad, thin plates, hung upon 
slender stems, so that there may be the freest possible 
contact with the air ; and that the leaves furnish the 
tree with the greatest amount of its sustenance by ab- 
sorbing from the atmosphere the impurities detrimental 
to animal life. In this arrangement of the several parts 
we see adaptation to use, or unity. 

Unity in Art. — In examining almost any of the 
works of man, our satisfaction, to a considerable extent, 
depends upon the idea that they are designed for use, 
and that in their construction this design is carried out. 
This is especially true of a machine. If it has no use, 
it is cast aside as a mere toy ; if it is not well adapted 
to its use, then improvements are sought. Full satisfac- 
tion only comes when the proper work is performed in 
the proper manner. 

In the structure of a building we look for the same 
unity of design. Whatever elements of beauty it may 
possess, if it does not serve its uses it is an offence. 
Then the several parts essential to the building must 
be arranged with express reference to this use, and all 
others omitted. The test of architectural ability is to 
make the best possible arrangement of necessary parts 
all strictly subordinated to the use. Within the limits 
of unity thus preserved there is opportunity for the ex- 
ercise of a great variety in taste. 

In the arrangement of a room, its furniture and 
utensils, the greatest satisfaction is taken when the prin- 
ciple of unity is fully preserved. Use determines the 
general character of the whole, and within its limits all 



ESTHETIC CULTURE. 227 

ornamentation should come. In sitting-rooms and par- 
lors, where considerable time is spent, pictures and 
beautiful objects of art are in place, as conforming ob- 
jects of sight to the physiological conditions of the eye 
and to the needs of the mind, A fit variety in this di- 
rection is entirely consonant with ideas of unity. 

Disregard of Unity. — In architecture the principle 
of unity is often entirely disregarded. Churches and 
lecture-rooms, for example, are built in accordance with 
some dogmatic canon in regard to proportion, and no 
attention is paid to acoustic effects, and they become an 
offence, alike to the speaker and the audience. Public 
edifices and dwellings are frequently erected in which 
use is entirely subordinated to external appearance. 

The principle of unity is also violated in attaching 
features to a building expressly for ornament, or orna- 
ment for ornament's sake. In the structure of roofs, 
windows, doors, and other necessary parts of a building, 
beautiful forms and arrangements may be chosen ; but 
the fundamental idea of unity forbids the addition of 
special features not necessary to the structure, simply 
for ornamentation. 

Aggregation not Unity, — The absence of this idea 
of unity is felt in visiting a museum or public gallery 
of art. In the whole collection there can be no general 
idea except that of aggregation. An ordinary visit to 
such places leaves but confused and unsatisfactory 
images in the mind, and neither pleasure nor profit is 
gained. It is only when the attention is concentrated 
upon a single object that good can arise, and here the 
idea of unity is preserved by excluding all objects ex- 
cept the one studied. 



228 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 

Symmetry. — Obsei^atioii in regard to almost any 
specimen of organic life shows a certain orderly arrange- 
ment of parts by which a balance is maintained on the 
two sides, and this arrangement is the same in all indi- 
viduals belonging to the same species, and is analogous 
in the several species that constitute the more general 
groups. For example, the leaves of plants are arranged 
on the stalk sometimes opposite, sometimes alternate, 
and sometimes in other orders ; but there is always a 
substantial equality maintained between the two sides. 
In like manner the anterior and posterior limbs of an 
animal balance each other, and the limbs and organs of 
sense are double, and placed on opposite sides. This 
arrangement of parts so that they balance each other is 
symmetry, and a perception of it gives a satisfaction to 
the mind and constitutes one of the elements of beauty. 

Symmetry in Mature. — Our pleasure at the sight of 
a fine tree, to a considerable extent, depends upon the 
idea of symmetry which it suggests. While there may 
not be an exact reproduction of parts on each side, there 
is a general balance maintained. To see how much 
symmetry enters into our ideas of the beauty of a tree, 
we have only to observe one that has been riven by 
lightning, and we find that in the loss of one side all 
beauty is gone. 

In the animal kingdom, so thoroughly is this idea 
of the symmetrical arrangement of parts impressed upon 
us that any deviation from it appears grotesque, and gives 
us an uneasy or painful feeling. This is illustrated by 
the sight of a flounder, where the relative position of 
the mouth and eyes, so different from that of most 
fish, suggests that some mistake has been made, which 



ESTHETIC CULTURE. 229 

the imagination vainly attempts to rectify. A similar 
feeling of pain is experienced from the same cause 
when we see a person who has lost a limb or an eye. 

Symmetry in Art. — The idea of symmetry is car- 
ried ont in almost every department of construction. It 
is an especial element in architecture, where it demands 
a central idea, and a balance in the grouping of subor- 
dinate parts. When either of these conditions is ab- 
sent, there is a disquieting feeling, a sense of incomplete- 
ness, and one element of beauty is wanting. 

An analogous effect is produced by objects out of 
their true position. "When a door, or window, or any 
other part of a building that should be vertical, is out 
of plumb, a painful sensation is produced ; and this feel- 
ing is strongest in those whose observing powers have 
been best trained. This probably arises, in part, from 
the feeling of insecurity which is associated with lean- 
ing structures. 

Harmony. — Closely associated with unity, which 
considers the adaptation of parts to use, is harmony, 
which takes into account the dependence of parts and 
their relations as to style. In regard to dependence, 
harmony demands that the principal parts be made the 
most prominent, and that the minor parts shall not ob- 
trude themselves upon notice. In this sense harmony 
is closely allied to proportion, but proportion in a gen- 
eral sense of considering all the parts which go to make 
up the structure or unity. 

Examples of this want of harmony may be seen in 
doors much too large or too small for the walls in which 
they are placed ; roofs so scanty as scarcely to be visi- 



230 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 

ble ; in the kind of dwelling which is very justly de- 
scribed as a portico with a house behind it ; in a small 
building surmounted by a large dome, looking like a 
child with his father's hat on ; and in that general ar- 
rangement of farm buildings where the stable is made 
more conspicuous than the dwelling. 

Harmony in Style. — In its second sense, harmony 
demands that, in the details of the arrangements of 
parts and in the finish, certain likenesses in style shall 
be preserved, and marked contrasts shall be avoided. 
When the laws of harmony are violated, a feeling is 
produced that the mistake has been made of putting 
together parts that belong to different objects, and that, 
though they may serve their uses, a different arrange- 
ment would serve them better. 

Harmony in Nature. — ^We see this idea of harmony 
carried out in organic structure. Each species of trees 
has its own law of growth, and its typical form, and 
each individual in the species conforms to the law, and 
more or less closely approximates to the form. Conif- 
erous trees are usually spire-shaped, and have branches 
and leaves peculiar to themselves ; maples, in form and 
leaf, are of a quite different, type, and there is no mix- 
ing of the characteristics of the two species. 

In the animal world we find the same laws of har- 
mony prevail in regard to general form, the arrangement 
of parts, and special characteristics. So much reliance 
can be placed upon this uniformity of structure in spe- 
cies that comparative anatomists are able to reconstruct 
an animal from a single bone, and even to reconstruct 
an extinct species from the impress of a single part left 
in the rocks. So strong is this idea of harmony in the 



ESTHETIC CULTURE. 231 

structure of animal forms impressed upon the mind 
that the discovery of the remains of a species in Aus- 
tralia, with some of the characteristics of a bird and 
some of a mammal, was for a long time considered a 
fable ; and, when the evidence was too strong to be 
doubted, the animal was regarded with feelings akin to 
those experienced toward monstrosities. 

Harmony in Art. — In architecture, the element of 
harmony is of special importance. Many styles have 
grown out of different conditions and circumstances, 
each of the features expressing a definite idea, and all 
necessary to the completed whole. Between these differ- 
ent styles there may be but few features in common ; 
and the effect of mixing parts is as incongruous as would 
be the growth of pine and maple branches and leaves on 
the same tree. 

For example, Greek architecture was developed in 
the structure of large temples, and in a climate warm 
enough for out-door living during the greater part of 
the year. The temple consisted of four walls in the 
form of a rectangle, and of an exterior and interior 
portico supported by columns, and connected by open 
door-ways through the walls. The interior was an open 
court. All the decorative skill of the Greeks was ex- 
pended upon the portico, which was a place of pubhc 
assemblage, and the principal part of the building. 
When the Greek temple is built for modern purposes 
in a climate where protection from the weather is a 
prime necessity, the portico is found to be practically of 
little use in itself, and of decided disadvantage to the 
interior by shutting out the light. The chief part of 
such a building is out of harmony with its uses. "When 



232 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 

the forms which were developed in connection with the 
Greek temple are used to ornament buildings which 
have grown ont of other circumstances and necessities, 
the effect is seen to be unpleasant from the violation of 
the laws of harmony. 

Want of Harmony. — The same want of harmony 
is shown in mixing special and characteristic features of 
other styles of building. The Norman battlements and 
turrets were raised for defense in an age of perpetual 
warfare, and the Gothic groined arches grew out of re- 
ligious fervor. To imite the forms of these two styles, 
and adapt them to the necessities of a modern dwelling, 
is to commit a double incongruity. 

The violation of the laws of harmony is well illus> 
trated by Lowell in his description of the house of Mr. 
Knott : 

" Whatever anybody had 
Out of the common, good or bad, 

Knott had it all worked well in ; 
A donjon keep, where clothes might dry; 
A porter's lodge, that was a sty : 
A campanile slim and high. 

Too small to hang a bell in. 
It was a house to make one stare. 

All corners and all gables ; 
And all the oddities to spare 
Were set upon the stables." 

Yaeiety. — The careful and minute study of ISTature 
shows that, while there is a conformity to the laws of 
proportion, unity, and symmetry, there are no two 
things ever just alike. The leaves of a tree, although 
conforming to a common type, are all different ; no two 
branches are alike in form, and no two trees are ever so 



ESTHETIC CULTURE. 233 

near alike tliat they may not be readily distinguished 
from each other. In the animal world the same truth 
holds ; no two animals are ever just alike, and, when 
the likeness is so perfect as in the structure of the 
two sides of the same animal, there are differences in 
detail which can be easily detected by nice observation. 
By these unlikenesses monotony is avoided, a perpet- 
ual pleasure is afforded by new impressions, and vari- 
ety is seen to constitute one of the essential elements 
of beauty. 

Yariety in Nature. — Upon this point of variety in 
ITature, Kuskin says : " Gather a branch from any of the 
trees and flowers to which the earth owes its principal 
beauty. I will take, for instance, a spray of the com- 
mon ash. E"ow l^ature abhors equality and similitude, 
just as much as foolish men love them. You will find 
that the ends of the shoots are composed of four green 
stalks bearing leaves, springing in the form of a cross 
if seen from above, and at first you will suppose the 
four arms of the cross are equal. But look closer, and 
you will find that two opposite arms or stalks have only 
'Slvq leaves each, and the other two have seven ; or else, 
two have seven and the other two nine, but always one 
pair of stalks has two more leaves than the other two. 
Sometimes the tree gets a little puzzled, and forgets 
which is to be the longest stalk, and begins with a stem 
for seven leaves where it should have nine, and then 
recollects itself at the last minute and puts on another 
leaf in a great hurry, and so produces a stalk with eight 
leaves ; and all this care it takes merely to keep itself 
out of equalities, and all its grace and power of pleasing 
are owing to its doing so, together with the lovely 



234 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 

curves in wliicli its stalks, tlius arranged, spring from 
the main bongh." 

Again lie says : " Yon do not feel interested in hear- 
ing the same thing over and over again. Why do you 
suppose you can feel interested in seeing the same thing 
over and over again, were that thing even the best and 
most beautiful in the world ? ' Nay,' but you will an- 
swer me, ' we see sunrises and sunsets, and violets and 
roses, over and over again, and we do not tire of them.' 
What ! did you ever see one sunrise like another ? Does 
not God vary his clouds for you every morning and 
every night ? though, indeed, there is enough in the dis- 
appearing and appearing of the great orb above the roll- 
ing of the world to interest all of us, one would think, 
for as many times as we shall see it, and yet the aspect 
of it is changed for us daily. You see violets and 
roses often, and are not tired of them. True ! but you 
did not often see two roses alike, or, if you did, you 
took care not to put them in the same nosegay, for fear 
the nosegay should be uninteresting." 

Variety in Art. — The variety which is seen to consti- 
tute so important an element of beauty in J^ature oc- 
cupies an equally important place in art. This is espec- 
ially noticeable in the architecture of our homes. A 
room is made more pleasant by windows varying in size 
and groupings on the different sides, and by panelings 
so that the walls do not appear as exact counterparts of 
each other. A building becomes a much more beautiful 
object, where exact symmetry is relieved by a judicious 
variety in the arrangement of parts. The plain monot- 
onous front of a great factory, with its windows all 
exact duplicates of one form, placed at exactly regular 



zESTHETIC CULTURE. 235 

intervals, is a synonym for ugliness, and any building is 
ugly as it approaches the factory type. 

Monotony in Cities. — The same principle holds true 
in the aggregation of houses in a city. However fine 
the model of a building may be in its general propor- 
tions, its endless duplication through long streets be- 
comes oppressive, and the mind derives a positive pleas- 
ure from the sight of even an old tumble-down rookery 
which relieves it from the wearisome monotony. "When 
art is generally taught, and the principles of architect- 
ure are well understood, the house a man builds will be 
the expression of his individual taste, and the aggrega- 
tion of such houses will have all the variety of indi- 
vidual character. Then the streets of a city will be a 
source of perpetual delight in their continual surprises, 
each change being but a variation of beautiful forms, 
and the whole will become an important educational 
influence. 

Contrasted Examples. — In one of the principal 
cities in this country, two costly and solid public build- 
ings stand near each other. The one is exactly sym- 
metrical, with a central doorway and the same number 
of windows on each side. The door and the windows 
are ornamented by elaborate carved stone-work, and 
along the frieze there is also a great amount of costly 
carvings. The windows are, however, exactly alike, and 
the carved ornaments are such exact duplications of a 
single form that they appear as cast in the same mould. 
A single glance at this structure comprehends it all, and 
the observer turns away from all this exhibition of labor 
and expense, if not in disgust, at least in utter indifference. 

In the other building, while there is a general bal- 



236 PRINCIPLES AND PEACTICE OF TEACHING. 

ance of parts so as to satisfy tlie mind in regard to 
symmetry, tlie windows and other parts differ in regard 
to form, size, and ornamental carvings. Eacli window 
lias its own separate design, and no two carvings are 
alike. The differences are not so great as to violate the 
laws of harmony, and the whole effect is that of unity 
in variety. The eye casually falling upon this structure 
is arrested by the beauty of its general form and color, 
and is thereby led to make more minute observations. 
The arrangement of the parts, each contributing to the 
beauty of the whole, next receives notice ; and, lastly, the 
attention is attracted to the ornamental finish, where 
each successive form becomes a new revelation and ex- 
cites a new interest. The pleasurable emotions aroused 
by the first glance are heightened by observation and 
study, and the sense of beauty is fully gratified. 

CoLOE. — Another fundamental element of beauty is 
color. The light by means of which the eye is enabled 
to see is principally derived from the sun ; and we as- 
sume that there is such a substantial accord between the 
eye and the sun's rays that the ordinary light of day 
gives the greatest satisfaction, while light of an essen- 
tially different character would cause uneasiness. The 
direct rays of the sun, however, are usually subdued, 
and so distributed over objects that they come to the 
eye in differing degrees of intensity ; and this variety is 
not only restful to the eye, but it is the only means by 
which we distinguish form through vision. Were it 
possible for all the light which enters the eye to be of 
uniform intensity, then form in objects would vanish, 
and all beauty would disappear. 



ESTHETIC CULTURE. 237 

Standard of Beauty in Color. — The analysis of tlie 
sun's ray gives tlie prismatic colors ; and we think it safe 
to assume tliat the proportion of color most pleasing to 
the eye, and therefore the most beautiful, is that of the 
solar spectrum, and that, when separated, the colors that 
most largely enter into the composition of the sun's ray 
will be the ones upon which the eye will dwell longest 
without requiring a change. 

For example, of the primary colors, blue constitutes 
nearly or quite one-half of the ray of light, and yellow 
something more than one-fourth. The combination of 
blue and yellow constitutes green. Experience shows 
that the eye will rest longer upon blue without uneasiness 
than upon either of the other primary colors, and upon 
green longer than upon any of the other secondary 
colors. In the blue of the sky and the green of the 
earth, we have the largest masses of color which Nature 
affords, and upon these the eye rests with a greater sat- 
isfaction than upon anything else, a fact confirming the 
idea of beauty of proportion existing in the sun's ray, 
and showing the conformity of internal conditions to 
objective realities. 

Com/plementary Colors. — As the sun's ray furnishes 
just the proportion of color that the eye demands, it fol- 
lows that the eye, sooner or later, will tire of observing 
any single color ; and, when it is so tired, rest comes from 
the observation of complementary colors. The sun's ray 
being made up of the three primary colors, blue, yellow, 
and red, each one is complementary to the other two, 
either separately or in combination. The eye is pleased 
with green for a longer time than with any other of the 
bright colors ; but, tiring at last, it demands the comple- 



238 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 

mentary color, red. In the same manner, tlie eye, tiring 
of violet, demands yellow, and, tiring of orange, de- 
mands blue. When the eye has become tired of a 
single color, as blue, if it be directed to another color 
partially composed of blue, as green, the blue element 
is not seen, and the green appears yellow. 

"When complementary colors are brought into prox- 
imity, the effect is to intensify both, and produce one 
kind of pleasing combination, as is seen in the violet 
and yellow of pansies, and in the appearance of bright 
red flowers, in contrast with the green of the grass. 
When two colors non-complementary, both of which 
contain a common element, as blue and green, are brought 
together, the effect is to modify or subdue the intensity 
of both, and to produce another kind of pleasing com- 
bination. We see this kind of effect in the natural 
mingling of flowers and colored lichens in rocky places, 
and in the mellowness of an extended landscape, where 
the intensity of the green is subdued by the faint and 
transparent blue of the atmosphere. 

Variety in Color. — In the hues produced by uniting 
two primary colors in different proportions, in the tints 
and shades of the different hues, and in the more com- 
plex combinations of the several primary colors, we 
have variety in color limited only by the power of the 
eye to discriminate in regard to differences. With 
primitive people the brighter colors alone appear to be 
attractive ; but, as aesthetic culture advances, greater 
beauty is seen in the delicate tints and shades of sub- 
dued and neutral colors. 

Attention to Color. — As color so much enters into 
ideas of beauty, and is so largely employed in dress, in the 



ESTHETIC CULTURE. 239 

furnishing of houses, and in the industrial arts, it should 
receive particular attention in school, both upon its 
theoretical and practical side. The late discoveries in 
regard to the nature of light have given to this subject 
a scientific character, and made it possible for teachers 
to approach it by scientific methods, and thus combine 
sesthetic and scientific culture. 

Sound. — Besides the beauty which is found in ob- 
jects of sight, certain sounds and combinations of sounds 
produce analogous emotions of pleasure, and are called 
beautiful, and of this form of beauty the aesthetic sense 
takes cognizance. The sounds to which the term 
beauty can be applied are found only in human 
speech and in music; the latter term including the 
natural song of birds, as well as the music of the 
voice in singing, and the artificial music performed 
upon instruments. 

Origin of Musical Perception. — In music, as in 
form, two theories are advanced as to the standard of 
beauty, the one making it an intuitive perception of 
that which approximates to spiritual perfection, and the 
other deriving it from the complex experiences of the 
human race. Herbert Spencer, in sustaining the latter 
view, sums up his argument as follows : " We have seen 
that there is a physiological relation common to men and 
all animals, between feeling and muscular action ; that, as 
vocal sounds are produced by muscular action, there is 
a consequent physiological relation between feeling and 
vocal sounds ; that all the modifications of voice, expres- 
sive of feehng, are the direct results of this physiologi- 
cal relation ; that music, adopting all these modifications, 



210 PRINCIPLES AND PEACTICE OF TEACHING. 

intensifies them more and more, as it ascends to its 
higher forms and beconies mnsic in virtue of thus in- 
tensifying them ; that from the ancient epic poet, chant- 
ing his verses, down to the modern musical composer, 
men of unusually strong feelings, prone to express them 
in extreme forms, have been naturally the agents of these 
intensifications ; and that there has little by little arisen 
a wide divergence between this idealized language of 
emotion and its natural language ; to which direct evi- 
dence we have added the indirect — ^that on no other 
tenable hypothesis can either the expressiveness or the 
genesis of music be explained." 

Whether we adopt the one or the other of these 
theories in regard to the nature and origin of music, we 
are all agreed that the musical faculty can be cultivated ; 
that musical culture is a part of a complete education, 
giving to the individual additional power and means of 
enjoyment, and that this culture is a legitimate part of 
school work. 

JEsthetiG and Moral Value of Musio. — The im- 
portance of musical culture to full development and the 
exact place it should occupy are so well stated by Mr. 
Spencer that we again quote : " The tendency of civil- 
ization is more and more to repress the antagonistic ele- 
ments of our characters, and to develop the social ones ; 
to curb our purely selfish desires and exercise our un- 
selfish ones ; to replace private gratification by gratifica- 
tion resulting from or involving the happiness of others. 
And while, by this adaptation to the social state, the 
sympathetic side of our nature is being unfolded, there 
is simultaneously growing up a language of sympathetic 
intercourse — a language through which we communi- 



^ESTHETIC CULTURE. 241 

cate to others the happiness we feel, and are made to 
share in their happiness." 

Music in Schools. — The controversies that have 
arisen concerning the introduction of music into schools 
have furnished incontrovertible arguments in its favor ; 
and experience has more than justified the logic, so that we 
are safe in assuming that music should constitute a part 
of every regular course of instruction in school. Sing- 
ing should be practised daily in every department for 
the immediate pleasure it gives, for the aesthetic culture 
which it affords, and for its beneficial results in school 
discipline. In the higher departments the art of music 
should be supplemented by its science, the attention be- 
ing mainly given to singing, as being of much greater 
importance than any form of instrumental music. 

Character of School Music. — As the function of 
music is to express emotion, which, reacting upon char- 
acter, tends to stimulate emotion, and progressively give 
it more fit expression, the character of the music intro- 
duced into our schools becomes a matter of prime con- 
cern. Music, like literature, has its low and sensational 
forms which tend to degrade both taste and feehng. 
Dime novels have their counterpart in musical composi- 
tion. This low kind of music includes the purely mean- 
ingless ; the sentimental, which ends in mere sentiment, 
but never excites to generosity or action ; the mocking, 
which parodies and vulgarizes that which is lofty and 
pure ; the ignoble, which clothes puerility in the garb 
of piety ; and the satanic, which appeals directly to the 
lower and baser passions. All this kind of music should 
be shunned, and that alone chosen which has a tendency 
to arouse the higher nature, to repress selfishness, and to 
11 



24:2 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 

restrain the lower propensities. Music of this kind, 
while directly aiding in sesthetic development, becomes 
an important element in moral culture. 

Tones in Speech. — Speech has the double function 
of expressing thought and emotion, the former by words 
and their combinations, and the latter principally by 
the quality and variations of tone. In moral culture, 
the end is to subordinate the passions, the appetites, and 
the selfish propensities ; to develop sympathy and the 
desire for the good of others ; and to place all the ac- 
tivities under the control of reason. Esthetic culture 
demands that the expression of these ruder emotions 
shall be correspondingly subordinated, and that the ex- 
pression of the gentler emotions be cultivated until they 
become fixed habits. 

TJnjpleasant Tones. — Loud tones in common conver- 
sation express a domineering spirit, coarse emotion, or a 
selfish determination to be heard in any event ; shrill 
tones denote ill-temper ; sneering tones indicate a dis- 
position to hurt ; and harsh dissonant tones show a want 
of thought or a lack of human sympathy. Should these 
tones be used simply from imitation, they would have 
the effect to arouse the emotions of which they are the 
natural expression in the person using them and in 
others. In consequence, the teacher cannot be too care- 
ful in regard to his own manner of speech, nor too at- 
tentive to that of his pupils. By proper training in re- 
gard to speech, the aesthetic sense is cultivated, and this, 
reacting, produces greater beauty of speech ; and, in the 
end, the tones used by both teacher and pupil will be 
those which express kindliness and tender emotion, and 
none other. 



yESTHETIC CULTURE. 243 

General Summary. — From the foregoing analysis, 
we get an idea of the nature of beauty and of the 
universality of its elements, and we see how aesthetic 
culture reaches out toward science upon the one side, and 
toward morals upon the other. "We also see how errone- 
ous is the notion which so extensively prevails that the 
aesthetic sense is confined to an appreciation or produc- 
tion of pictures or other works which come under the 
general designation of the fine arts. It is true that the 
fine arts constitute the proper field for aesthetic activity ; 
but the limits of these arts must be extended so as to 
embrace all possible arrangements of objects and ma- 
terials that give to the mind the satisfaction which is af- 
forded by beauty. The processes to secure this end are 
two — a mental conception of what constitutes beauty, 
and a practical ability to arrange available materials in 
such a manner as to approximately satisfy this concep- 
tion. These processes may be separated in thought, but 
scarcely in practice, each step in the one being accom- 
panied by a corresponding step in the other. An en- 
deavor to do results in a better knowledge of what 
should be done, and increased knowledge gives greater 
power to do. 

JEsthetio Teaching. — The processes of teaching in 
our schools leading to aesthetic culture need be both di- 
rect and indirect — direct in developing ideas in regard 
to beauty, and in giving to them practical expression, 
and indirect, in so arranging all matters pertaining to 
the school that the same ideas may be insensibly im- 
bibed. 

The Schoolroom. — In the construction of the 



244: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 

schoolroom, due regard should be paid to proportion, 
unity, and harmony, so that the room itseK may be a 
satisfaction rather than an offense to the aesthetic sense. 
The shape of the room, the finish of the walls, and the 
character of the furniture are all matters of importance. 
A room one-fourth longer than wide, with windows 
grouped to admit broad lights, finished with the natural 
grain of wood instead of paint, and with w^alls delicately 
tinted, costs but little more in the outset than the cari- 
catures of buildings which are so often erected for school- 
houses. It will be seen also that the arrangement for 
the admission of light and the apparatus for heating 
and ventilation have their aesthetic as well as sanitary 
bearing. 

The business of building belongs to the school di- 
rectors, and the teacher's office in this connection is only 
advisory. In the care of the room, however, where the 
teacher has control, equal regard should be paid to 
aesthetic effects. The room must always be kept scru- 
pulously clean. There is no ugliness or deformity so 
fatal to aesthetic culture as filth. The furniture should 
be preserved unmarred, and every piece of apparatus 
should have its appropriate place and be kept there 
when not in use. 

The untinted and often dingy walls of the ordinary 
schoolroom may be easily decorated in some cheap way, 
that ugliness will be converted into beauty. A few 
hardy vines may be trained to run over them ; or failing 
in this, evergreen branches may be used with excellent 
effect. In summer, bouquets of flowers may be made 
available, the perfume as well as the beauty producing 
agreeable impressions. 



ESTHETIC CULTURE. 245 

School Surroundings. — In the choice of a site, re- 
gard should be had to its beauty as well as to its health- 
fulness. A fine slope near a grove of trees, an outlook 
upon a body of water or over a valley, or a sheltered 
nook among the hills, will furnish beautiful images, 
which will insensibly take possession of the minds of 
the pupils. As the influence which the site affords will 
affect favorably or unfavorably many generations of 
children, it seems that much more than the usual amount 
of attention should be given to this matter. In regard to 
the condition and care of the school-yard, grass and trees 
are indispensable, and flowers are very desirable. On 
the negative side, rank weeds should be exterminated, 
and no foul places should be tolerated. 

Dress. — Attention to personal appearance is one 
of the fundamental requirements of aesthetic culture, 
and this includes dress. Perfect neatness in dress is 
an indispensable requisite demanded alike by health, 
morality, and beauty. In addition, the latter requires 
proper attention to form, color, and adaptation to special 
use. IS'either costly material nor fashion necessarily 
has any connection with the intrinsically beautiful, but 
there is a demand that the best disposition shall be made 
of the material at command. 

Habits and Manners. — Personal habits and manners 
have a direct bearing upon this subject. The sharp, 
abrupt words of command, so frequently used by teach- 
ers, not only tend to excite antagonism, but they be- 
come sources of unamiable expression on the part of 
pupils, leading directly to boorishness of behavior. 
Courtesy upon the part of both teacher and pupils is 
demanded alike by sesthetics and morality. Obedience 



246 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 

is much, more quickly and willingly yielded to a pleas- 
ant request than to a stern command ; and, when yielded 
in the one case, it is a spontaneous and cheerful act, and 
in the other it is the sullen compliance, offspring of 
fear. Culture in this direction also demands that atten- 
tion should be given to cleaning shoes upon entering 
the room, to the manner of walking in the room, and to 
proper position in study and recitation. 

In the detail of work performed by the pupil, there 
is an opportunity for direct aesthetic culture. Books 
should be kept neat and in their places. The desks 
should be without blot or mar. The writing on paper 
and slates should always be neatly done. All black- 
board work should be neatly arranged, and in such order 
that the successive steps can be easily followed. "While 
pupils are sometimes impatient of criticism of slovenly 
work, they are always pleased when the process of in- 
struction has resulted in their ability to do neat work. 

Drawing. — ^While the manner of performing work 
in all the branches may be made to contribute to aesthet- 
ic culture, the special work to that end is drawing, and 
for this reason drawing should be made a part of the 
daily work in every grade of school. Drawing is not, as 
is quite generally supposed, a study merely for artists, 
but it is of the highest use to all, physically in training 
the muscles of the hand, intellectually in inciting to 
correct observation, and aesthetically in the appreciation 
and production of beauty in form. It is also the hand- 
maid of other branches, and no study in school can be 
pursued in which drawing in some form may not be 
made an important aid. It is so important in its bearing 



ESTHETIC CULTURE. 247 

upon sestlietic culture, as well as in its other relations, 
that a somewhat detailed statement of its successive steps 
seems to be demanded. 

Muscular Drill. — Experience shows that when draw- 
ing is introduced into schools, the lessons alternating 
with penmanship, the latter is more quickly learned than 
though the whole time had been spent upon it alone. 
The training derived from drawing gives to the muscles 
of the hand flexibility and accuracy of movement, of the 
greatest value in all departments of industry where deli- 
cacy of touch is demanded. The exercises that give 
this training comprised both the copying of pictures of 
objects, and the invention of new designs from given 
elements. 

Cultivating Observation. — The end next to be at- 
tained in drawing is the habit of correct observation. 
To this end, there must be a sufficient amount of copy- 
ing drawings to give the technical method of represent- 
ing objects, and then drill in drawing real objects. 
Success in this is of great importance in the study of 
the physical sciences, as the study gives the matter for 
drawing, and the drawing leads to nicer observation in 
the science. This power to represent real objects is 
also of great value in almost every kind of mechanical 
pursuit, and it lies at the very foundation of all success- 
ful art. 

Perspective and Shading. — Real objects must be 
drawn as they appear, and the efforts to accomplish this 
develop the facts from which the laws of perspective 
are derived. These laws are then applied to the repre- 
sentation of objects, either single or in combination, 
greatly facilitating the operation. In a similar way the 



248 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 

manner of representing tlie different degrees of intensity 
of light, or shading, is practised as an art, and the laws 
are developed and applied in practice. 

Use of Colors. — The liking of children for color 
may be turned to good account in this direction. The 
regular color-lessons in the primary grades are for the 
purpose mainly of giving the pupils the names and 
qualities of the primary colors, and their more simple 
combinations. In the more advanced grades, the pupils 
may be led to gradually substitute color for the black 
lines in shading, and by easy stages to the use of color in 
painting. By such practical exercises, ideas of beauty 
in color may be developed and practically applied. 

Industrial Art. — In the higher grades the princi- 
ples of drawing should be turned in the direction of the 
industries. As in the advanced courses of every branch 
of science, the methods change from induction to deduc- 
tion, from discovery to application. The laws which 
have been inferred from practice and verified, and the 
skill obtained in the lower grades, need now be applied 
to specific fields of industry, and the aesthetic sense em- 
ployed in engrafting the beautiful upon the useful, or 
in so constructing the useful that it becomes the beauti- 
ful. At this point, the courses of instruction, which be- 
fore have been general, may now diverge, and conform 
to individual tastes or to prospective vocations. 

Art Projyer. — The greatest advantage to be derived 
from drawing in school is. the aid which it gives to 
the development of the sesthetic sense in all. A feeling 
of respect and admiration is engendered for all beauti- 
ful things, and with it a corresponding feeling of dis- 
gust at the essentially ugly and vulgar. The sesthetic 



ESTHETIC CULTURE. 249 

sense comes in as an aid to the moral sense ; and, while 
the latter would subordinate all things to goodness, the 
former wonld make goodness so beautiful as to give to it 
an additional attraction. But these lessons have another 
value. They afford the best means for the discovery of 
those who have a peculiar aptitude for artistic work, 
and they furnish the best opportunity for the cultiva- 
tion of the artistic faculty. "When drawing in our 
schools becomes general, we may expect not only a more 
universal appreciation of beauty in Nature and art, but 
a large accession to the ranks of true artists. 

National Art. — As the aesthetic sense becomes de- 
veloped, and sesthetic ideas are disseminated, the ques- 
tion of the formation of a distinctive school of American 
art is frequently discussed, and speculations are indulged 
in as to what will be its character. We believe that in 
the future such a school will appear, but only its more 
general f eatm'es can now be outlined. It will evidently 
not be a copy of the art of antiquity, nor of any of the 
schools of modern Europe, for the life out of which 
these schools grew was provincial compared with the 
broad and cosmopolitan character of American society. 
It cannot be a mere school of foreign growth grafted 
upon American life. It must be an outgrowth of our 
own conditions and necessities. If it is to have more 
than a mere ephemeral existence, its roots must be 
deeply and firmly set in E'ature, and it must find its 
first expression in personal appearance and manners, and 
in the best possible ordering of homes. The care and 
arrangement of the common material necessary for daily 
comfort must be made a matter of prime moment, so 
that children may imbibe ideas of beauty from the first 



250 TRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 

moment of conscious existence. IlTational art will come 
from individual culture, as national morality comes from 
individual character. 

The common schools furnish the opportunity for the 
dissemination of the gesthetic ideas, and the teachers of 
the country are the custodians of the future of national 
art, as well as of national intelligence. If true to their 
trusts they will strive as earnestly for aesthetic as for in- 
tellectual culture, both as an element of personal char- 
acter and as a means of instruction. The pupils under 
their care will be trained to the production of beautiful 
forms, and to the appreciation of the beautiful in IN^ature 
and art. The taste acquired in school wiU permeate all 
the homes in the land ; and from these homes, trans- 
figured by the spirit of beauty, an American art will 
arise, as varied, as comprehensive, and as original as the 
intelligence and character of the American people. 



CHAPTEK XIII. 

MORAL CULTURE. 

Moral Aims. — To attain a Mgli moral character, a 
modern writer says : " We must consider the demands 
of tiie present time; become enlightened concerning 
our practical duties ; learn to make the best of all hu- 
man conditions ; seek, amid all obstructions, confusions, 
and corruptions, the way of a true life ; bear testimony 
against all iniquity, and in favor of all righteousness ; 
and dedicate our lives to the reasonable service of God 
and man, as children of the Highest, and as brothers 
of the lowest." 

This exalted aim may be considered the fruitage of 
education and of hf e, and it becomes a question of great 
moment as to how far it may be attained through the 
instrumentality of the schools. 

Neglect of Moral Instruction. — It has been charged, 
with some show of reason, that in our modern system 
of schools intelligence is more directly sought than mo- 
rality, that the discriminative and executive powers 
are cultivated to the neglect of the regulative. Making 
due allowance for exaggeration and prejudice, there re- 



252 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 

mains enongli of truth in this charge to demand that 
its causes should be investigated and a remedy devised. 

Reasons for the Neglect. — The most obvious reasons 
for the neglect of moral instruction in schools are that 
the sciences and branches that treat of purely intellec- 
tual matters are better known and systematized than 
those that treat of morals, and hence are more easily 
tauo-ht ; and that httle effort has been made to examine 
morals upon the scientific side, and to formulate its 
principles in accordance with the general ideas of hu- 
man development. 

Another reason bearing upon the same subject has 
been the prevalence of two crude philosophic notions, 
antagonistic to each other, but equally fatal to the in- 
troduction of morality into schools. The first of these 
claims that moral conduct is incident to intellectual 
culture, and hence that the ordinary exercises of the 
schools are sufficient for moral purposes. The second, 
that morality belongs exclusively to theology, and hence 
has no place in the secular scheme of State education, 
or, indeed, in any but strictly theologic schools. 

At the present time, however, the fact that morality 
does not receive proper attention is regarded by the 
most thoughtful teachers and friends of education as a 
grave if not fatal defect in any system of education ; 
and the reasons for such neglect in the past are not con- 
sidered so formidable or fundamental as necessarily to 
apply to the schools of the future. The old philosophic 
notions are seriously called in question, and there is an 
evident desire for a new departure. The first steps 
looking toward reform require an examination of fun- 
damental principles. 



MORAL CULTURE. 253 

What is Moealitt ? — The field of morality is hu- 
inanitj, and it includes all the possible relations which 
exist between hnman beings. A man has duties reli- 
gious toward his Maker ; duties personal to himseK ; 
duties moral toward his neighbor ; and duties humane 
toward the lower animals. All these duties are im- 
perative, but the domain of each is distinct from the 
others. It is only when relations are established be- 
tween man and man that morality arises or is possible. 

In a loose and vague way, morality is made to define 
all of human duty, and in discussing the subject much 
confusion arises from the different definitions which 
different parties give to it. While one is urging the 
importance of duty toward God, the other is thinking 
about duty toward men, the trouble arising from con- 
founding religious and moral duties. We are thus care- 
ful to give the exact limits to the subject, as we regard 
it, so that vexed questions not germane to it may be 
excluded, and so that the attention may be confined to 
the exact subject under consideration. Should an ob- 
jection be made that our definition is not sufficiently 
comprehensive, we reply that we will then confine our 
discussion to that branch of morals which considers hu- 
man relations. 

Morals thus defined, while restricted to that which 
is human, in its applications includes the whole field of 
social activities ; and upon its principles only can any 
rational system of civil government or political economy 
be established. 

Basis of Morals . — Every human being has needs 
inherent in his being, and directly depending upon the 
fact of his existence. These needs create demands that 



254 PKINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 

must be supplied, or Ms existence soon terminates. For 
example, lie needs to eat, to breathe, and to preserve a 
given temperature ; and food, air, and warmth must be 
supplied, or life, which is his by the divine right of 
its being, ceases. 

Extent of Weeds. — These needs are coextensive with 
the whole nature of man, physical, mental, and moral. 
He needs physical agencies that his body may grow, at- 
tain strength, and be kept in health ; he needs materials 
of study and guidance that his mind may be nurtured ; 
and he needs good example, social intercourse, and in- 
struction in regard to conduct, that his moral sensibili- 
ties may be made sensitive and excited to action. 

Equality of Needs. — Differences in environment, in 
civilization, in national characteristics, and in individual 
character, would seem to indicate a diJfference in needs. 
Indeed, many needs are brought into existence only by 
the development of the individual or the race. But the 
general needs of all are the same, and the special needs 
are the same under the same conditions. Potentially, 
then, the needs of one human being are exactly equal 
to those of any other human being. 

Basis of Rights. — The demands flowing from these 
needs give rise to individual rights ; and to every need 
there is a corresponding right. "We have physical needs, 
and a right to all the physical agencies which the needs 
demand ; mental and moral needs, and a right to all the 
mental and moral agencies which these needs demand. 
The right of every human being to these agencies in- 
heres in his very constitution, and is a part of his being ; 
and to deprive him of these rights would be to rob 
him of a portion of his life. 



MORAL CULTURE. 255 

Basis of Duty. — But man is a social being, and, as 
a member of community, bis existence is bound up 
witb otber existences. Relations are established which, 
while they restrict individual freedom on one side, 
vastly multiply individual power and possibility on the 
other. His activities are supplemented by the activities 
of others. From his position as a member of society 
he receives help from others, and there devolves upon 
him an obligation to help others in turn. This obliga- 
tion, which we call moral duty, is the exact reciprocal 
of his individual rights, and- there can be no possible 
right without a corresponding duty. 

Examples. — ^We all have a need of air, and, in con- 
sequence, a right to air. But, as air is supplied to us 
naturally in abundance, the only duty of others in re- 
gard to our supply is that they shall not interfere with 
it, either restricting its quantity or vitiating its quality. 
The duty in this case is negative. 

We all have a need of food, and consequently a right 
to food. This need is imperative at all times, and the 
right is just as inherent when we are infants or disabled 
as when we are able to procure our own food. It 
follows that somebody must minister to our necessities 
while we are helpless ; and it equally follows that we 
should minister to others' necessities under like circum- 
stances. The duty of others to supply us with food, 
when able to do so ourselves, does not inhere, for the 
performance of such an act would be a sacrifice of their 
rights, and a consequent diminution of their ability to 
perform their real duty. This duty to serve others is 
positive. 

Negative and Positive Duties. — Moral duties are 



256 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 

thus seen to be twofold — negative, leading to a respect 
for the rights of others, and positive, demanding service. 
Kespect for rights implies that our every act, in which 
others are interested, or which in any way affects oth- 
ers, shall be based upon the principle that every human 
being has precisely the same rights as ourselves, no 
more, no less ; while service demands that we shall ac- 
tively supply needs when by so doing we shall promote 
human welfare. 

The demands of negative duty are imperative, that 
we shall refrain from injuring the quality or diminish- 
ing the quantity of our neighbor's food ; from injuring 
his person ; from converting his property to our own 
use ; from restricting his liberty to think and to form 
opinions for himself ; from imputing to him unworthy 
motives in differences of opinion ; and from dnninish- 
ing his opportunities to earn his own living by misin- 
terpreting his acts and misrepresenting his motives. 

The demands of positive duty are equally impera- 
tive. They require of us tender nurture for every child, 
wise and adequate provision for the sick and unfortu- 
nate, and affectionate care for the aged who have fin- 
ished life's work. Duty, as thus defined, is the embodi- 
ment of that ethical law known as the " golden rule," 
and our constant endeavor should be to make this rule 
a practical reality. 

Standard of Moral Duty. — In every act that comes 
within the domain of morals there are two parties, the 
actor and the receiver of the action. In his act, the ac- 
tor may perform his duties, both positive and negative, 
or he may neglect them, and his decision in the matter 
determines the character of the act as far as he is con- 



MORAL CULTURE. 257 

cemed. If tlie question : " Will this act conduce to tlie 
weKare of the receiver, or to human welfare ? " is an- 
swered in the affirmative, the act is approved by moral 
judgment, and is right; if answered in the negative, 
the action is condemned by moral judgment, and is 
wrong. The decision in each case is based entirely 
upon motive. 

The receiver of the action has an entirely different 
standard of judgment in regard to the act in question. 
Without directly considering the motives of the actoi^, 
he is particularly interested in the results. If the act 
conduces to his welfare it is good^ if it does not it is had. 

In every moral act there is then a double judgment, 
the one considering its results upon the person directly 
affected or upon the world at large, and the other deal- 
ing with the motive of the actor, and, in case of bad re- 
sults, passing judgment upon his innocence or guilt. 
The highest morality, or the interests of society as a 
whole, demands that not only should an action be right, 
springing from good motives, but that it should also be 
good, producing beneficent results. 

The fact is constantly forced upon us that, with the 
best of intentions, persons are constantly performing 
acts injurious to those affected by them, and we are led 
to inquire into the cause of the evil results, and to ascer- 
tain what element besides good motive should enter into 
moral action. 

Concrete Examples. — A mother desires the welfare 
of her child, and is unwearied in her care and devotion. 
By continual self-sacrifice, she gratifies its every desire 
and caprice, until she develops in it selfishness to such, 
a degree as to entirely vitiate its character. 



258 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 

A father, in his desire to repress all evil tendencies 
in his child, threatens and cajoles by turns, is terribly 
severe or forgetful of his promises, and the child grows 
np, very acute as to parental moods, but with little con- 
trol of temper, and with little regard to truth. 

A teacher, intent upon securing good conduct and 
intellectual progress upon the part of his pupils, visits 
each offense of omission or commission with severe pen- 
alties, thus stifling affection and developing in them 
ideas of brutality and revenge. 

A physician desires to relieve the pain of his patient, 
and effect a speedy cure ; yet, by a mistake in the nature 
of the case, or in the medicine used, he administers a 
poison which aggravates the disease or terminates the 
life. 

The captain of a ship, in stress of weather, to pre- 
vent his vessel from foundering, battens down the 
hatchways, and, w^hen the storm has passed, finds his 
passengers smothered, his measures to preserve their 
lives having caused their death. 

A clergyman, impressed by the tremendous conse- 
quences of an impenitent life, visits a sick man, and by 
his endeavors to save produces a nervous exhaustion 
which results in death. 

Factors of Morality. — In all these cases the motives 
have been good while the results have been evil ; and 
we see that by a wiser judgment, coming from a higher 
intelligence, the evils might have been avoided. The 
factors of morality are thus seen to be good motive and 
intelligence^ the highest morality demanding both in 
the highest degree. 

Good motive is a fixed factor. It is the disposition 



MORAL CULTURE. 259 

to do right, or to perform tlie acts demanded by duty, 
and is the highest guide in determining conduct. It 
may exist in individuals mixed more or less with selfish 
desires and propensities, but in essential character it is 
always the same. 

Intelligence, on the contrary, differs with the indi- 
vidual, the age, and the race. "With advancing civiliza- 
tion, ideas of what conduces to hnman welfare change, 
and the morality of one age is considered very imper- 
fect in the next. Absolute morality must be associated 
with infinite wisdom. 

Individual Morality. — The demands of morality 
upon every individual are that he should perform every 
duty that devolves upon him, both negative and posi- 
tive ; that, in every act in which others are concerned, 
he should consider their welfare equally with his own ; 
that in every case his acts should conform to his highest 
intelligence, and that he should neglect no opportunity 
to become more intelligent. 

MoEAL Instefctioit th Schools. — The foregoing 
analysis shows the nature of the problem which we are 
to solve in education, and serves as a guide in regard 
to the methods to be pursued in making moral instruc- 
tion a part of the school course. "Without discussing 
the question whether the disposition to do right comes 
from the operation of a single faculty of the mind, or 
is the resultant of the combined action of several facul- 
ties, we assume this position as incontrovertible, that 
moral power, like physical and intellectual power, is de- 
veloped by exercise, and can be greatly increased by 
systematic training. 



260 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 

Force of Example. — " As is the teaclier so is tlie 
scliool," is anold adage. Children are imitative beings, 
and, consciously or unconsciously, they copy the man- 
ners of those with whom they are associated. If the 
teacher is domineering, discourteous, and unjust, through 
the operation of this imitative propensity the pupils 
will show the same traits ; and, unless corrected by some 
strong counteracting influence, they will become life- 
habits. On the contrary, if the teacher is reasonable, 
kind, just, and courteous, the same imitative propensity 
will lead the pupils to copy these traits, and to form 
corresponding habits. 

The manners and habits of the teacher are thus seen 
to be of fundamental importance in moral training. 
Trustees and directors of schools cannot be too careful 
in the selection of teachers ; and teachers, knowing that 
example is one of the most powerful of all the agencies 
operating upon childhood, should carefully scrutinize 
their own conduct, and see that every act not only 
springs from the right motive, but that it be performed 
in such a manner as to carry the conviction of its motive 
to the minds of the pupils. 

Manners. — In this connection", it may be observed 
that manners are intimately associated with morals ; 
that the expression of the act, as well as the act itself, 
has its moral bearings. Kindliness will generate its 
like, even if uncouthly expressed ; but it will make a 
much more favorable and lasting impression if it is 
shown in such an easy and appropriate way that no part 
of the attention is turned from the act itself to the man- 
ner in which the act is performed. There should be no 
occasion that the admiration for moral goodness should 



MORAL CULTURE. 261 

be accompanied by excuses for coarse language and im- 
proprieties of attitude and gesture. 

Examjple of Ill-Manners. — Dr. Samuel Johnson was 
noted for bis kindliness and broad sympathies with im- 
perfect and suffering humanity. His writings are full 
of the most elevating sentiments, and in all his works 
there is nothing ignoble. So tender was his conscience 
that, when in middle life and at the height of his re- 
nown, he made a pilgrimage to his native town of 
Uttoxeter, and stood all day, with head uncovered, in 
the open market place, to atone for refusing a request 
of his father in boyhood. All admired the greatness of 
his genius and the goodness of his heart ; yet in his social 
intercourse he was loud, overbearing, and often insolent, 
and at the table his manner of eating was so gross as to 
excite universal disgust. To his intimate associates the 
coarseness of his manners in a great measure nullified 
the pleasure which the brilliancy of his conversation 
created, and the influence which his wisdom merited. 

Limit of Responsibility. — As the influence of home 
and of general society is much greater than that of the 
school, the teacher can be held responsible for results 
only so far as his own influence extends. If that in- 
fluence, both directly and indirectly, has always been in 
favor of the highest moral excellence, no blame can at- 
tach to him if other and adverse influences, over which 
he has no control, have proved stronger than his own. 

Moral Sensibility. — The moral sensibilities of pupils 
should be awakened and made acute. To this end, in 
all social intercourse they should be taught to re- 
spect the rights of others as far as person and property 
are concerned. They should be made to see that the 



262 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 

hoyden game so common, where one pnpil takes hold 
of another without his consent, is a violation of personal 
rights. The care of older pupils for the young, and of 
the strong for the weak, should be encouraged, as de- 
veloping in them ideas antagonistic to mere selfish grati- 
fication. Bullying and outrage on the part of the strong 
should be repressed, gently but firmly, and an endeavor 
should be made to eradicate all tendencies in this direc- 
tion. All selfishness should be made odious to the one 
exhibiting it, by contrasting the act with one of an oppo- 
site character, and all unselfish acts should receive from 
the teacher a quiet recognition that the pupil can well 
understand. By continual vigilance, stimulating right 
conduct and repressing wrong, a public sentiment will 
be developed in the school in the direction of justice 
and kindliness, and the discipline of the school will go 
on by the action of social forces without the direct in- 
terference of the teacher. The good conduct which 
this public sentiment demands will gradually harden 
into habits which last through life. 

Incidental Moral Lessons. — Pestalozzi's first expe- 
rience as a teacher was at Stanz, where he had the en- 
tire care of a hundred destitute children living in an old 
convent. The accommodations were poor and the food 
coarse and scanty. While there a fire took place in the 
neighboring village of Altdorf, by which a large num- 
ber of people were rendered homeless. The sudden 
calamity called for immediate relief. Pestalozzi gave 
an account of the fire to his pupils, and described the 
destitution which had followed. He told them how 
many little children like themselves were suffering from 
cold and hunger. When their sympathies were excited. 



MORAL CULTURE. 263 

lie asked, " Can we do anything to relieve this suffer- 
ing ? " Several of the pnpils at once proposed that the 
children be invited to Stanz as members of their own 
little community. " But," said Pestalozzi, " if they 
come they must share your accommodations and food ; 
and, in consequence, your own comforts will be less, 
and probably many times you will not have food enough 
to satisfy your hunger." 

The pupils, however, insisted, and the invitation 
was given and accepted. E"ot a single murmur was 
ever heard in consequence of the privations which this 
act entailed. On the contrary, the guests were eagerly 
welcomed, and treated with special marks of respect 
and honor. This lesson in practical benevolence sunk 
deep into their hearts, enriching and ennobling their 
lives for all time ; and the event goes into history and 
literature as a monument to the wisdom of the teacher 
and the acute moral sensibility of the school, and as an 
incentive to higher endeavor on the part of all teachers. 

Incidents arise in every school which the skillful 
teacher may turn to good advantage in inculcating a 
moral lesson. A child has lost his dinner; who will 
share theirs with him? Who will contribute to the 
cleanliness, the comfort, and the adornment of the 
schoolhouse ? "Who will refrain from injuring or soil- 
ing the schoolhouse in any way ? !N'ot a day or an hour 
passes without affording an opportunity for repressing ac- 
tions that will give pain to others, or for the performance 
of acts that will give pleasure to others. The attend- 
ance at school of a deformed child, or one so differing 
from the others as to attract attention, may be made the 
occasion for deep and lasting moral impressions, and the 



264 PRINCIPLES AND PPvACTICE OF TEACHING. 

school-life of the iinfort"iiiiate may be made so pleasant 
by the affectionate attitude of his schoolmates as to com- 
pensate, to a large extent, for the privations which his 
unfortunate condition entails. A case of destitution in 
the neighborhood may occasion the voluntary offers of 
service which requires sacrifice of pleasure, time, and 
comfort ; and when this is accomplished a great step is 
gained in the triumph of duty over selfishness. 

" The H0I7 Supper is kept indeed, 
In whatso we share with another's need ; 
Not that which we give but what we share, 
For the gift without the giver is bare ! " 

Care must be taken by the teacher, in all such cases, 
that the good deed has a distinct recognition ; and care 
must also be taken that the feeling excited, and the 
consequent benevolent action, shall be directed to cases 
of real distress ; for misapplied benevolence and sacri- 
fice always lead to evil results. 

Negative Results. — The moral sensibilities of pupils 
may be blunted or destroyed by unwise action on the 
part of teachers. An unmerited punishment may in- 
flict an injury for life. Dr. Carpenter says : " I^othing 
tends so much to prevent the healthful development of 
the moral sense as the infliction of punishment which 
the child feels to be unjust ; and nothing retards the 
acquirement of the power of directing the intellectual 
processes so much as the emotional disturbance which 
the feeling of injustice provokes." A pupil accustomed 
to see others treated brutally becomes hardened, and 
loses that acute sympathy with suffering which is the 
impelling force to service w^hen such duty is demanded. 



MORAL CULTURE. 265 

In cases wliere brutality is very frequent, children may 
learn even to take delight in suffering, thus nullifying 
moral culture, reversing the moral law, and developing 
a demoniac rather than a moral character. Denuncia- 
tions, sarcastic remarks calculated to wound the sensi- 
bilities, scoldings, uncharitableness,' exhibitions of fa- 
voritism, unnecessary rules and commands, and all forms 
of caprice upon the part of the teacher, have a tendency 
to produce these negative moral results in the minds of 
the pupils. By a careless discipline and a slip-shod ad- 
ministration of justice in school, children grow up with 
little idea of self-control, with their regulative faculties 
entirely undeveloped, and they often pass through life 
intent upon the gratification of personal desires, but en- 
tirely insensible to the welfare of others. 

Labor and Service. — To arouse moral sensibility is 
one thing, to direct it in the channels of proper expen- 
diture is quite another. The feeling of sympathy which 
has been developed may be wasted in mere sentiment, 
as when a tale of suffering causes tears, and tears only ; 
or it may be expended upon unworthy objects, as when 
alms are given to professional beggars, directly encour- 
aging idleness and vice ; or it may be expended in cases 
where it relieves distress or encourages worthy and no- 
ble effort. In the latter case only does the act make its 
proper impression, and the feeling become an element 
of character. It is incumbent on the teacher, then, not 
only to arouse sensibilities but to direct them to legiti- 
mate ends, to encourage the conversion of sympathetic 
feeling into acts of service. The importance of securing 
the manifestation of kindly intentions in muscular ac- 
tion can scarcely be overestimated. 
12 



266 PEINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 

One of the first lessons in unselfishness which a child 
learns is when it performs an act of real service for its 
parents, and the glow of pleasure which results from a 
knowledge that it is a service, and is recognized as such, 
leads to a repetition of similar acts. The teacher may 
make use of this principle of action, and stimulate the 
moral powers, by asking little acts of service ; though 
the requests of this character should not be too frequent, 
nor should they convey the idea that they are made 
through the indolence of the teacher. 

Caution. — Every emotion has its natural and proper 
channel of expenditure. Pity for suffering finds its 
proper expenditure in acts of relief. To witness dis- 
tress that we cannot in any way alleviate is to excite 
sensibilities which cannot be properly expended, and 
the effect is an intellectual and moral derangement. 
The aroused emotion may react, producing physical and 
mental prostration, or it may be expended in channels 
quite different from the legitimate ones. For example, 
the sight of squalor, sordidness, and misery, which can- 
not be relieved, may excite an emotion of pity, which 
may assume the form of frenzy, and expend itself in 
rage ; or the emotion may expend itself in sensual in- 
dulgence, and the person seek relief in the f orgetfulness 
of intoxication. 

In his endeavors to excite moral action, the teacher 
should take care to avoid cases of this character, when 
the emotion excited cannot be expended in legitimate 
acts of relief. To this end details of stories of horrible 
destitution and suffering, of fire and shipwreck, of rail- 
road accidents, and of war and pestilence, should be 
avoided altogether. 



MORAL CULTURE. 267 

Recognition of Well-Doing. — In the matter of recog- 
nition of well-doing, two extremes are to be avoided. 
By praise, the pupil loses the glow of satisfaction that 
comes from an unselfish performance of service which 
has afforded relief or assistance to others, and there is 
substituted for it a self -satisfaction, in which the virtue 
of the act and the praise are mingled ; but, bj repeat- 
ing the process, the pleasure derived from the praise 
becomes more pronounced, until the quality of the act 
is lost sight of in the desire to secure the praise. 

On the other hand, if service is received with entire 
indifference, the pupil has little guide as to the nature 
of the acts which he performs, and little encouragement 
to persevere in well-doing. "With an adult, whose judg- 
ment has been matured by experience, the matter of 
recognition may be of little or no importance in the 
performance of duty ; but with children it is one of the 
most potent forces which urges them to action, and 
which leads them to discriminate between desirable and 
undesirable acts. 

This recognition may be made by a glance of the 
eye, a modulation of tone, or a word of approbation, 
which, adjusted to time and circumstance, will make 
deep impressions, and become powerful incentives to a 
repetition of similar acts in the future. In this recog- 
nition motives should be considered, and the praise 
should not be withheld even if the service has not been 
productive of good. In case of evil results, the faults 
of judgment may be pointed out, with no censure either 
expressed or implied. In the bestowal of approbation 
a strict impartiality should be observed toward all. 
The sensibilities of children are often wounded, and 



268 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 

the moral tone of tlie whole school lowered, by praise 
and censure bestowed through caprice or favoritism. 

School Government. — All the agencies used to se- 
cure good order and good conduct in school should be 
considered only as means for moral instruction and 
training. The objective point in all school government 
is to so develop the regulative powers of each pupil 
that unruly desires and passions are kept within their 
legitimate sphere ; that the lower propensities are 
brought under the control of the higher sentiments ; 
and that good conduct be the result of a growth from 
within, rather than of an enforcement from without. 
The end is entirely a moral one, and all considerations 
outside of the strict letter of moral relations should be 
discarded as obstructive to this end and as demoralizing 
to the school. 

Obstructive Considerations. — In times past there has 
been great effort wasted in the supposed necessity of 
" sustaining the dignity of the teacher," of " vindicating 
the majesty of the law," and of " maintaining order for 
order's sake." All these considerations disappear when 
we see the character of the relations which exist between 
teacher and pupil, and fully understand that all policies 
in regard to government are to be settled solely upon 
moral grounds. The question which the teacher should 
ask, when he performs an act toward an individual pu- 
pil, or devises a measure that affects the school, is the 
same that morality demands should be asked upon all 
occasions when an act is contemplated in which others 
are interested : " Will this act conduce to the welfare 
of those affected by it, or to general weKare % " If this 



MORAL CULTURE. 269 

question is answered in tlie affirmative, then the act is 
right, and the result will be beneficial, provided the re- 
lations in all particulars have been fully comprehended. 
If the question is answered in the negative, then the 
act is wrong, and no considerations of dignity, law, or 
order can make it right, or justify the purpose in per- 
forming it. 

We may say, in passing, that if the attention of the 
teacher is solely directed to moral aims ; if he sincerely 
wishes to promote the welfare of his pupils, and has 
the intelligence requisite to understand the moral ques- 
tions involved in his relations and acts ; and if, acting 
upon these principles, he adjudicates each case as it 
arises in the spirit of justice and kindness : incidentally 
he will better maintain his own dignity, vindicate the 
law, and sustain order, than though he should conscious- 
ly devote himself to these ends. 

Changes desirable. — ^With the moral idea dominant, 
that inflexibly demands good motive as prompting to 
every act, amd is content with nothing less than good 
results, and with the old crude ideas of the nature of 
school government and of the exceptional position of 
the teacher eliminated, all the oil brutal notions in re- 
gard to methods of maintaining order will disappear, 
and the reign of justice will supersede the reign of force. 

The highest morality demands, upon the part of the 
teacher, a genuine desire to make every act tell for the 
benefit of his pupils ; a knowledge of relations which 
will enable him to wisely adapt means to ends ; a f or- 
getfulness and subordination of self in the work in 
which he is engaged ; and an original force of character 
which will assert itself, and exact that deference which 



270 PRINCIPLES AND PKACTICE OP TEACHING. 

is due wortli and worth onlj. He must not only 
feel kindly but lie must make kindliness felt ; lie must 
not only deal justly but be must enthrone justice, and 
make it so altogether lovely as to exact a willing 
homage of all. Courteous in his intercourse with his 
pupils, he receives courtesy in return : kindly in his 
feelings, he begets kindness in them ; just in his acts, 
he creates a sentiment of justice as a fundamental mo- 
tive ; patient and gentle in his manners, he elevates and 
refines ; zealous in his work, he kindles enthusiasm and 
awakens aspiration ; devoted to the welfare of others, 
he checks selfishness and induces a noble emulation for 
the attainment of the higher life, 

Restraint. — Evil conduct must not be permitted, 
but the teacher must discriminate in regard to its char- 
acter, and give to each case its appropriate treatment. 
Habits of self-indulgence must be broken up by inciting 
to active services ; selfishness must be counteracted by 
exciting sympathy for others ; and thoughtlessness must 
be cured by the inflexible demand that atonement must 
be made for the fault. Teachers must also keep in 
mind that bad conduct is as often the result of moral 
ignorance as of moral depravity, and calls for instruc- 
tion rather than censure or punishment. Turbulence, 
violence, and open disregard of common decorum must 
be restrained by physical means, if others fail, until op- 
portunity is given for the operation of moral influences 
and the awakening of moral powers. 

Indirect Moral Influences. — So far the practical 
course of moral instruction recommended has been 
mainly incidental. The teacher's work has been to 
surround the pupil with influences and agencies calcu- 



MORAL CULTURE. 271 

lated to awaken and strengthen moral impressions, and 
to clieck selfish propensities. The pupils insensibly im- 
bibe and assimilate moral sentiments. Their moral na- 
ture is developed through affection which is awakened 
by parental and friendly care ; through imitation when 
they witness unselfish acts on the part of others ; through 
symjpathy with suffering and distress whenever cases of 
the kind come to their notice ; and through experience 
which progressively enables them to put themselves in 
another's place, and so fully realize the results of their 
own action. Moral actions practised during the school- 
days crystallize into principles and become fixed habits, 
which not only regulate moral conduct in specific cases, 
but which finally so take possession of the whole being 
as to make moral action instinctive and unconscious. 

Dangers of Neglect. — A neglect of this indirect 
moral teaching is fatal to the formation of the highest 
character. Habits of self-indulgence formed in child- 
hood are seldom or never fully eradicated. While it is 
comparatively easy to give direction to the unfolding 
thought, and to the unformed habits, the bent once es- 
tablished, and the vital currents flowing in a given way, 
a change can be effected only by violent effort, and by 
a great loss of power. In point of time the incidental 
instraction should precede formal moral instruction, so 
that, in the demonstration of moral principles, an appeal 
may be made directly to consciousness and experience. 
As in all other branches of thought and activity, the 
art precedes the science ; and the philosophic principles 
which the science unfolds are derived directly from the 
art which has insensibly grown and been put in prac- 
tice during all the years of conscious existence. 



272 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 

Direct Moeal Teaching. — The moral impressions 
made by tlie indirect method of teaching need be sup- 
plemented by direct lessons bearing upon the same sub- 
ject. The emotions arising from sympathy should be 
accompanied step by step by an intelligence in regard 
to the circumstances which excited them, and to the 
methods in which they may be properly expended. Sen- 
sibilities in regard to moral acts should be supplemented 
by a knowledge of the general laws of moral conduct. 
Moral art should finally terminate in moral science. 

In teaching morals, the same laws prevail as in teach- 
ing other branches. The mind must first be trained to 
observe, compare, and classify facts, and then to draw 
inferences from them. These inferences will succes- 
sively become more abstract, until they contain the 
most comprehensive moral law; and the law derived 
from observation and experience can be taken as a guide 
in new experiences. 

Precept and Practice. — Precept has but little influ- 
ence upon the mind in awakening the moral nature. 
Homilies, the repetition of moral rules and sentiments, 
and what pupils call " preaching," will be found of lit- 
tle or no value. The truth embodied in the precept is 
usually so general in its character that it weighs little 
against concrete wants and personal desires. The les- 
son sought to be enforced, having no root in experience, 
takes but feeble hold of the mind. Repetition only 
intensifies the difficulty. The words, which at first had 
little meaning, soon become a mere formula with no more 
sense than a succession of inarticulate sounds. Finding 
that the formula is considered important, independent 
of his ability to comprehend it, the pupil falls into the 



MORAL CULTURE. 273 

habit of regarding the words and of neglecting tlie 
thoughts which the words were designed to convey, a 
habit fatal to both intellectual and moral improvement. 
Before a moral precept can be fullj comprehended, the 
moral sensibilities must be aroused in the direction of 
that particular truth, and the sensibility exhibited by 
some beneficent deed. 

Use of Common Incidents, — ^Besides their indirect 
use, as has already been indicated, common incidents 
may be made the texts of direct moral lessons. Some 
event has happened in the neighborhood, or is related 
in the newspapers in which the pupils take a lively in- 
terest. The matter is taken up and discussed before 
the class or the school. All the facts bearing upon the 
case are given. Conflicting statements are harmonized 
as far as possible. The whole is made into a continuous 
narrative, so that the relations of the facts may be seen. 
The pupils assist in the process. Their sympathy is 
excited, and they are called upon to pass judgment upon 
the different acts, the probable motive of the actor, and 
the effect of the acts upon all the parties interested. 
Such a process accustoms the pupil to look at the 
moral side of every act ; and by it three things are ac- 
complished — ^moral feeling is aroused, intellectual ap- 
proval of the right course is secured, and a stimulus is 
given to practical good conduct. 

Sometimes controversies arising in the school itself 
may be made the occasion for deriving important moral 
inferences. The school may be organized into a court, 
in which testimony is taken and decisions rendered. In 
exercises employing common incidents connected with 
the school or neighborhood, great care must be taken to 



274 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 

avoid subjects which will arouse prejudice and ill-feel- 
ing, or will array the school in opposing factions. 

Use of Literature. — For the purposes of illustrat- 
ing a moral truth, miscellaneous literary selections may 
be substituted for the formal reading-lessons of the 
text-book. With a little care selections may be made, 
that are adapted to any grade of school, and to almost 
any special occasion. The value of the lessons derived 
from these exercises is in direct ratio to the interest 
which may be excited in discussing them. A mere 
reading of the most exalted sentiments without note or 
comment is productive of little or no good. Such a 
practice is equivalent to the teaching of morals by pre- 
cept, the ideas failing to reach the mind, and the words 
producing only reflex nervous action. 

Besides the immediate moral lesson to be derived 
from these literary selections, a great good arises from 
making the pupil familiar with the best productions of 
the world, increasing his intellectual grasp and filKng 
his mind with noble thoughts and images. The taste 
is also cultivated, and both feeling and judgment unite 
in giving preference to that which is pure and elevating. 

Abuse of Literature. — ^Nothing is more fatal to in- 
tellectual and moral growth than a devotion to low and 
sensational literary works. The mind is kept in a state 
of dreamy indolence, or of a feverish unrest. Interest 
is excited in unreal and impossible events, and abnormal 
desires are awakened which cannot be gratified in the 
ordinary process of human affairs. Like the growth 
of a poisonous fungus, the taste for this literature ab- 
sorbs the vital forces and destroys all that is noble in 
life. It awakens no moral sentiment and renders the 



MORAL CULTURE. 275 

mind impatient of all kinds of moral restraint. It ends 
by the complete destrnction of the regulative powers, 
and the snrrender of the whole being to impulse and 
caprice. To prevent this disastrous result, ceaseless 
effort should be made to cultivate a taste for the works 
of the great masters of huinan thought. Experience 
shows that there is a no more effectual way to prevent 
the mind from dwelling upon impure and gross sub- 
jects than bj filling it completely with those of an op- 
posite character. 

Use of History. — The study of history may be made 
to bear directly upon morals. The acts of different per- 
sonages in history may be carefully examined in connec- 
tion with surrounding conditions and relations ; and from 
all the circumstances, inference may be drawn in regard 
to the motives which prompted the acts, and to the 
effect of the acts upon the community. Comparisons 
may be instituted between the careers of different per- 
sons, both in regard to motive and influence. The 
effect of personal character, whether selfish or unselfish, 
upon the nation or the age should receive particular at- 
tention. From individuals the examination may be car- 
ried to policies as affecting national welfare, and to the 
general character and career of nations as affecting civ- 
ilization and the world. 

History should also be presented in such a way as 
to show how national greatness and national decay have 
largely depended upon moral causes. It should deal 
with principles and show the inevitable result of con- 
duct, whether of individuals or nations ; and, finally, it 
should show the gradual change of the existing nations 
of the earth, from a state of barbarism where brute 



276 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING, 

strength, was tlie only element of control, to that of 
civilization where moral and intellectual forces are pro- 
gressively becoming more powerful. 

Concrete Examples. — There can be no more effective 
stimulus to patriotism than the story of the trials, the 
sufferings, and the sacrifices of our fathers in grappling 
with Nature, in converting a savage wilderness into 
fruitful fields, and in engaging in a long and desperate 
war rather than submit to a policy which deprived them 
of their just rights. The struggles of heroes for their 
country's freedom, the more obscure struggles of brave 
men for individual liberty, the sufferings of martyrs for 
conscience' sake, and the battles and triumphs of truth 
everywhere all tend to excite deep emotion, and a warm 
admiration for an unselfish devotion to truth. These 
records may be made the inspiration of childhood in 
very tender years. The picture of Sir Philip Sydney, 
mortally wounded, motioning away the cup of water 
from his parched lips, to relieve the thirst of a dying 
soldier " because his needs are greater than mine," is 
one of such moral grandeur that it ennobles every heart 
where the lesson finds lodgment. 

Defects in Historical Study. — ^Much of that which 
passes as historical study has but little worth from the 
moral point of view. The process of committing texts 
to memory in historical study is directly antagonistic to 
moral as well as to intellectual progress. So great a 
stress is laid upon words that the meaning becomes of 
secondary importance, or is altogether neglected; the 
mind fails to notice relations in which morals have their 
root, and there results a mental habit which overlooks 
relations everywhere. The mere chronologies of na- 



MORAL CULTURE. 277 

tions, tlie details of battles, and the succession of dynas- 
ties, by themselves, are of little importance for mental 
development or practical guidance, or as a stimulant to 
good conduct. The study which contents itself with 
the mere facts of history, without considering their re- 
lations and significance, lacks all those elements which 
give to history its greatest value, and is unworthy of 
practice in any intelligent system of teaching. 

Moral Science. — ^With the more advanced classes 
the inductions and inferences which have been made 
from the practice and the objective study of morals 
may be brought together, and presented in a subjective 
form, constituting the science of morals. The princi- 
ples of morals, as given in the commencement of this 
chapter, should be thoroughly treated and illustrated. 
The limits of moral action and the field of moral duty 
should be strictly defined. The sequence and depend- 
ence of needs, rights, and duties should be brought to 
the comprehension of all. The standard of moral 
judgment should be made so f amihar that its use would 
become an ordinary habit of the mind, and an analysis 
of the moral character of an act would antecede the 
act itself. The pupil should be made to see and feel 
that beneficent motive is a necessary element in every 
life worth living ; that consideration for the weKare of 
others is just as much a necessity as attention to per- 
sonal welfare ; and that one of the great purposes of 
life is to adjust our acts so that the desire to promote 
human welfare shall always be attained to its fullest ex- 
tent. 

This view of human duty makes personal and pub- 
lic weKare identical, and shows that their apparent an- 



278 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 

tagonism has grown out of unintelligent and imperfect 
knowledge of hnman relations, and of practices in ac- 
cordance with such imperfect knowledge. It gives 
broader and higher ideas of life and its possibilities. 
Finding the basis of morals in the constitution of mind 
itself, the moral law has a new significance. It is not 
a rule forced upon us bj a power foreign to ourselves, 
but is a part of our being, necessary to our welfare 
and to our very existence. Enforced by the facts of 
observation, as experience widens obedience becomes a 
matter of intelligent choice, l^ow the maxims of the 
sages, and the golden rule itseH, have new meaning. 
They are no longer commands to be obeyed, but condi- 
tions to be observed. They no longer come as arbitrary 
mandates, thwarting our desires and abridging our free- 
dom, but as the expression and revelation of those be- 
neficent relations by means of which alone can we attain 
completeness of hving and fullness of life. 

Social Kelations. — The intelligence specially de- 
manded as a guide to moral action is in regard to social 
relations. We need to know what will conduce to hu- 
man welfare, before we can decide what course to pur- 
sue as far as others are concerned. Knowing that with 
the purest of motives we are liable to make serious mis- 
takes unless we possess this antecedent knowledge, the 
study of sociology becomes a matter of necessity. Teach- 
ers who have made themselves familiar with the sub- 
ject will have no difficulty in interesting the pupils 
upon the questions involved. Perhaps at first short 
general exercises, once or twice a week, would be suffi- 
cient. In these exercises the various social problems 



MORAL CULTURE. 2T9 

should be clearly presented, leading the pupils to be- 
stow as mncli thought upon them as possible ; then thej 
should be familiarly discussed, the pupils deciding them 
according to moral principles. 

The advantages gained by such a course are many. 
A new field of thought is opened to the pupil outside 
the ordinary routine of the schoolroom ; the reasoning 
powers are taxed to see all the relations involved, and 
to place all the facts in definite order ; the judgment is. 
trained in making decisions in accordance with well- 
settled principles ; and the moral powers are awakened 
by the necessity of measuring all actions by the stand- 
ard of duty, and of considering all questions from the 
moral point of view. 

The Family, — At the basis of the whole social su- 
perstructure are the family relations. How shall duties, 
conjugal, parental, filial, and fraternal, be adjusted, so 
that in all family concerns there shall be the least 
waste of effort, an equable division of labor and cares, 
the least restriction of individual liberty, the most scru- 
pulous care for individual, rights, the greatest desire to 
be of service one to another, the most careful and gen- 
erous nurture for children, and the highest and best 
opportunity for the development of a strong and noble 
character % The general moral law affords the key for 
the perfect solution of these questions; but the law 
needs be analyzed and specifically applied, to the end 
that the spirit of the law shall permeate the whole be- 
ing, and moral habits be made deep and lasting. We 
would say in passing that a careful study in this direc- 
tion will doubtless reveal the fact that hitherto in the 
world too much relative stress has been laid upon the 



280 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 

duties of children to their parents, while too little at- 
tention has been given to the duties of parents to their 
children ; and this for the reason that books upon duty 
have been written by parents, and the children's side 
of the question has not been properly represented. 

General Society. — ]^ext above the family come the 
interests of neighborhoods and general society. What 
are the relations that exist between us and our fellows 
in the same community, and what obligations rest upon 
us in consequence of these relations ? Why should we 
tell the truth, be honest in our dealings, keep our en- 
gagements, and fulfill our contracts ? The examination 
of this subject brings in all the questions relating to 
buyer and seller, employer and employe, and laborer 
and capitalist. With the development of the moral 
nature and intelligence in these directions, the grinding 
oppression of the laborer on the one hand, and the bru- 
tal revolt of the laborer on the other, would alike be 
impossible. It would be seen that the welfare of each 
is bound up in the welfare of all, and that to seek per- 
sonal ends regardless of public good is to array against 
us the moral forces of the world. This subject covers 
the same field as law ; and so far as law is synonymous 
with justice, it is but another expression for morality. 
Indeed, the whole warrant of law is found in moral re- 
lations, and the law is of benefit to man just so far as 
it embodies moral principles. 

Civil Government — The social organization that 
takes the form of government represents one phase of 
human relations, and hence lies strictly within the field 
of morality. It has sometimes been said that legisla- 
tion has no right to touch moral subjects, but from the 



MORAL CULTUEE. 281 

definition of morals we see that it can deal witli no 
other. The jnst powers of government being derived 
from the consent of the governed, governmental duty 
must coincide with personal dntj as far as it goes, and 
must have for its objects the protection of rights and 
the performance of service. A knowledge of the rela- 
tions of government to community, of the powers and 
duties of civil rulers, of the limits of governmental 
action, and of the tests to be applied to statutes to de- 
cide upon their validity, must be antecedent to intelli- 
gent moral action in regard to these questions. It will 
be seen that a nullification of just laws, and a revolt 
from necessary restraint, produce anarchy, which is the 
negation of morality ; while submission to unjust statutes 
subverts liberty and prevents moral development. All 
governmental work must be judged by moral standards. 

Practical Morality. — The mind having become en- 
lightened in regard to social relations, the moral law, 
which was objectively developed, may now be subjec- 
tively applied, and taken as a guide to future conduct 
and in new experiences. Actions in particular cases 
need no longer be tentative, but they may be deliber- 
ately taken in the full assurance of beneficent result. 
Dependence upon the moral law may be made with the 
same assurance as upon gravitation. 

Applications in School. — In school the teacher 
should give to the moral law a wide and varied appli- 
cation to as many of the occurrences of daily life as pos- 
sible, to accustom the pupils to examine the moral bear- 
ing of all their acts. What moral principles are involved 
in cleanliness of person and clothing, and attention to 
neatness and order in the room ? Is there anything 



282 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 

immoral in bringing dirt on the feet into the school- 
room or into the sitting-room at home ? or in neglect- 
ing to put things in their proper places ? or in careless- 
ly breaking and destroying things ? "What has morality 
to say in regard to interruptions of school order ? to 
play in study hours ? to inattention ? to neglect of 
study ? to waste of time ? 

The scope of the discussion may be widened by the 
introduction of questions like the following : Are amuse- 
ments necessary, and in accordance with the moral law ? 
What of dancing, ball-playing, card-playing, and other 
games? How much of our likings or dislikings of 
these amusements is the result of educational bias, and 
how much do they depend upon moral considerations ? 

"What has morality to say in regard to lotteries, gam- 
bling, and horse-racing ? to drinking intoxicating liquor, 
and to making and selling the same ? To the use of to- 
bacco, to overreaching in trade, to adulterations, to con- 
cealing defects in articles sold ? 

"What obligations rest upon every one to earn his 
own living ? Why should he not live upon the earnings 
of another ? Why should he be economical in expen- 
diture ? What incentives are there to thrift, and fore- 
thought for the future ? What duty rests upon youth 
and maturity in regard to old age ? 

The solution of these questions cannot be obtained 
from a book, nor can they be dogmatically stated by the 
teacher. The value of these exercises depends upon their 
full and free discussion in class, the collection of facts 
made by the pupils bearing upon each case, the infer- 
ences derived from such facts, and the detection of fal- 
lacies of statement and inference. The teacher's work 



MORAL CULTURE. 283 

is principally directive, and lie should avoid giving de- 
cisions with the air of authority, for the good to the 
pupils comes from the thought elicited, rather than 
from the conclusions stated. 

Results of Moral Training. — The outcome of this 
moral training in homes and in schools will be indi- 
vidual lives enriched, ennobled, and exalted ; selfishness 
duly controlled, and motive based upon considerations 
of human welfare ; intelligence informing in regard to 
relations and obligations, and guiding to beneficent re- 
sults ; homes in which the gratification of personal de- 
sires is always subordinated to the general good ; com- 
munities where human rights are sacred, and the patent 
of nobility is " service to humanity ; " States, founded 
upon individual purity, throwing their mantle of pro- 
tection around the humblest and weakest, furnishing 
opportunity for the most complete development of all, 
and establishing public justice upon the sure foundation 
of private character ; and the final realization of the 
prediction upon the advent of the great Teacher : " Peace 
on earth and good-will to men." 



CHAPTER XIY. 

GENERAL COURSE OF STUDY. 

Pkeliminakt. — For tlie purpose of a thorough ex- 
amination and illustration of the subject, a course of 
study has been prepared of graded schools, where there 
is an opportunity for the complete development of an 
educational system. The course comprises four depart- 
ments of three grades each, requiring on an average 
twelve years' study. The school-year is divided into 
three nearly equal parts, conforming to the general cus- 
tom in this respect. In those schools where a division 
into two or four terms is adopted, the changes needed 
will refer only to the details of the work of each grade, 
and can easily be made by the teacher. 

Following the general detailed course will be found 
suggestions in regard to the course adapted to ungraded 
and country schools, and also in regard to the methods 
to be pursued to remedy the acknowledged defects of 
the ungraded system. 

Principles taken as a Basis. — In preparing this 
course, the following principles, exemplified in the pre- 
ceding chapters, have served as a guide in the selection 
and order of the topics : 

First : That the objects of education are twofold : 



GENERAL COURSE OF STUDY. 285 

the full development of all the powers and faculties, 
and the acquisition of such knowledge as shall be of the 
greatest worth in the ordinary vocations and in the dis- 
charge of daily duties. 

Second : That all the faculties of the mind should be 
cultivated in every department of school-work, in the 
exact order of the growth and relative activity of each 
faculty. 

Third: That the perceptive faculties are the most 
active in childhood, and that perceptive knowledge 
should be made the basis of all primary school-work. 

Fourth : That the " object lessons " used for the de- 
velopment of the perceptive faculties should be so ar- 
ranged that, by progressive steps, they lead directly into 
the sciences. 

Fifth : That the studies of each grade should be so 
coordinated that each one shall be complementary of 
the others, promoting harmony of development and in- 
tensity of impression. 

Sixth : That reason and judgment, or the reflective 
faculties of the mind, are best developed by inferences 
derived from a wide basis of facts obtained through 
perception ; and that the wider and more thorough the 
perceptive training, the more important and valuable 
will be the reflective results. 

Seventh : That the sciences are best taught in the 
order of their discovery, objects coming before general- 
izations, and facts before principles ; and that the order 
best adapted for understanding the sciences is the best 
possible for the promotion of human development. 

Eighth : That those studies which most enter into 
the daily thoughts and occupations of men, and which 



286 PKINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 

serve as a guide to right conduct in all ordinary affairs, 
are the studies which best promote mental discipline ; 
and, conversely, those studies which are of the least 
practical use, in the widest acceptance of the term, are 
of the least value in mental discipline. 

Ninth : That natural and invariable relations exist 
between the different departments of thought, by which 
one is subordinate to another; and this order of de- 
pendence determines the time and the manner of the 
introduction of each into the school-course. 

Tenth : That the course of study for general devel- 
opment is substantially the same for all pupils, irre- 
spective of their future work or field of activity ; and 
that changes for professional purposes should be made 
only in the advanced grades. 

Eleventh : That the studies of each grade should be 
exactly adapted to the development of the pupils of 
that grade, so that changes or omissions, except within 
a limited range, are inadmissible. 

Twelfth : That the aggregate of all the studies pur- 
sued in the school should serve as an introduction into 
every department of thought, and should lead finally 
into every field of industry. 

General Aeeangement.— In the general arrange- 
ment, five lines of study are made to extend throughout 
the course, two principal, and three subordinate. Of 
the principal lines the natural sciences, teaching of the 
outward world, occupy the first place, as furnishing the 
mind with material for observation and those sequences 
of phenomena out of which all ideas of logical order 
had their origin. 



GENERAL COURSE OF STUDY. 287 

Pliilosopliy, or the Humanities, treating of man and 
his works, forms the complement of the natm-al sci- 
ences, and furnishes both the materials of thought and 
the field in which the highest order of thinking can be 
best exercised. 

The subordinate lines are language, valued as it em- 
balms and expresses the thoughts of the natural sciences, 
and philosophy ; mathematics, as it weighs and measures 
science ; and aesthetics, as it shows proportion, symme- 
try, and harmony in science, and culminates in an ap- 
preciation of the beautiful. 

The Natural Sciences. — These make man acquainted 
with his environment, and the conditions which he must 
observe for the preservation of his existence. They 
furnish him with that practical knowledge which lies at 
the foundation of all productive industry. 

The materials for the study of these sciences are 
found everywhere ; and their pursuit leads to habits of 
close and accurate observation, and to the investigation 
of everything that comes within the cognizance of the 
senses. Study in this direction also leads the mind to 
look beyond the object to the thought which the object 
represents, and through phenomena to the intelligence 
and laws which control them. 

Cowrse in Science. — In arranging the topics in the 
scientific course two things are to be considered : first, 
the succession of the sciences themselves ; and, second, 
the succession of the topics in each science. 

In the succession of the sciences it is obvious that 
mineralogy, botany, and zoology, that treat of the ob- 
jects of the inorganic and organic world, should receive 
the first attention. The order of precedence of the three 



288 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 

is to be determined by relative simplicity, by the ease 
with whicli materials of study can be obtained, and by 
tbe interest which may be excited. 

'Next after these studies, v/hich examine matter it- 
seK, come physics and chemistry, treating of the forces 
which control matter in the mass and in atoms ; and 
lastly, geology and astronomy, which give generaliza- 
tions based upon all that has preceded them. 

Geology, without chemistry to show the composition 
of the rocks, and without botany and zoology to inter- 
pret the meaning of the embalmed remains of organic 
life which the rocks contain, is simply conjecture of no 
scientific value ; and astronomy, without the laws and 
principles derived from physics, is an incomprehensible 
maze. 

In the primary classes, only the most obvious of the 
objective qualities or facts are first presented ; farther 
along a more thorough examination is given, and gen- 
eral classifications are made. 

As the sciences are so interwoven that the elements 
of one are needed for the higher investigations of an- 
other, all the elementary sciences receive this objective 
treatment before any of them is completed. 

In the more advanced courses each science is treated 
again upon successively higher planes, leading to more 
minute investigations and to broader generalizations. 

JPhilosqphy, or the Humanities, treats of man as an 
intelligent and moral being, and of the work which he 
has accomplished. It turns the attention from an ob- 
servation of the outward world to the study of mind 
and its products. It makes the student familiar with 
mental operations, and leads him to a consideration of 



GENEEAL COURSE OF STUDY. 289 

the laws wliicli govern the relations of men in all the 
different phases of society. 

Course in Philosophy. — In arranging the topics of 
the philosophic course the same general order has been 
observed as in the scientific course. The topics them- 
selves are arranged according to their relative simplicity 
and dependence ; and each has its several presentations 
on successively higher planes. 

Geography. — The first steps leading toward philoso- 
phy are taken in the primary rooms, in the lessons in 
miscellaneous objects, and in reading. The lessons in 
place gradually lead into geography, which treats of 
Nature on the one hand, and of man upon the other. 
In its philosophic side it treats of man as an inhabitant 
of the earth, and of the races, their divisions and dis- 
tribution. It considers man as a being acted upon by 
material forces, and as an agent active in changing ma- 
terial conditions ; and it furnishes a general description 
of the works of man in his various fields of activity. 

The reading lessons are progressive in character, and 
are made to lead gradually into literature. 

History. — Following geography is United States 
history, giving the facts concerning the past of our own 
country, and showing the proximate causes of the pres- 
ent condition of our national affairs. From these may 
be inferred general laws in regard to the effect of out- 
ward circumstances, and of human conduct in shaping 
national destiny. Farther along in the course, general 
history receives the same kind of attention, and leads to 
similar generalizations from a wider field of thought 
and action. 

Literature., as a part of human history, and as a re- 
13 



290 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 

suit of human effort, is introduced objectively in tlie 
senior grades, and receives a more thorough treatment 
in the academic department under the heads of Eng- 
lish Literature and General Literature. 

Civil Government^ the next topic, treats of the or- 
ganization of men into communities and states ; of the 
social laws which control such organizations; and of 
the different forms of government which have grown 
up under different conditions. By the study of this 
branch is obtained the special knowledge necessary to 
the intelligent discharge of the duties of citizenship. 
Farther along, aided by moral philosophy, the same 
subject is treated under the head of Political Economy ; 
and from the history and condition of society are de- 
rived those general laws which must guide conduct in 
the promotion of human welfare. 

Mental Philosophy is the next general topic, turn- 
ing the attention from the object of thought to thought 
itself, and the conditions of its vigorous and healthful 
action. It analyzes the mental powers, and shows the 
nature and limitations of each ; it traces thought along 
all its various lines, and shows how it must proceed to 
reach correct conclusions ; it gives the order of devel- 
opment of the faculties, and shows the kind of aliment 
necessary to each stage of mental growth. In logic, 
higher up in the course, the same subject is again con- 
sidered, showing the special operations of the mind in 
inductive and deductive reasoning. 

In moral philosophy this introspective work is en- 
larged, and reaches out from the mind to embrace all 
the relations which the mind sustains to other minds. 
It shows how rights grow out of necessities, duties out 



GENERAL COURSE OF STUDY. 291 

of rights, and how the promotion of human welfare 
becomes the standard hj which the morality and intrin- 
sic worth of every act are to be judged. 

Language furnishes the means by which the thoughts 
of science and philosophy are preserved and expressed. 
Although subordinate to thought, it is an inseparable 
accompaniment to it ; and, in the study of every branch 
of knowledge, language demands and receives nearly 
or quite one-half of the time and attention. 

The objective points in the study of language are 
accuracy and facility in the expression of thought, 
both in oral and written expression. This mastery over 
language, so that every thought may be expressed in 
the best words, arranged in well-constructed sentences, 
is at once one of the most important elements of human 
power, and the most accurate test of the possession of 
knowledge itself. 

Skill in the use of language, in both speaking and 
writing, comes from the practice which involves a clear 
understanding of the thought to be expressed, and a 
continual effort to express it in the most effective man- 
ner. Every lesson and every school exercise should be 
made to contribute to the pupil's power to use language. 
The teacher's work is to guide the pupil in the choice 
and arrangement of words, and to point out inaccura- 
cies of expression for him to correct. 

Language as a means of expressing thought should 
be taught by its use, and, as far as possible, incident- 
ally, while primary attention is fixed upon the thoughts 
to be expressed. Language in its scientific arrange- 
ment and history becomes a branch of philosophy, and 
hence belongs to the advanced course of instruction. 



292 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 

Course in Language. — The conrse of language has 
been arranged to include daily exercises, and a most 
thorough drill in the use of language, both in speaking 
and writing; the technical details of reading, spell- 
ing, and penmanship; the etymology of words; and 
the laws of construction as embodied in the rules of 
syntax. 

Use in SpeaMng. — The use of language in speak- 
ing is introduced into the primary schools by means of 
questions which demand complete sentences for answer ; 
of lessons which require verbal descriptions ; of stories 
told by teachers and reproduced by pupils ; and of ori- 
ginal incidents related by pupils. The vocabulary of 
the pupil is enlarged by giving a new word to express 
every new idea developed, so that thought and expres- 
sion go hand in hand. These oral exercises are con- 
tinued for several years, and gradually give place to 
topical recitations, and in that form are continued 
throughout the entire school course. 

Recitation of the memorized words of a text-hooh is 
never permitted. 

Use in Writing. — The use of language in writing 
is introduced by exercises directly from objects, in which 
but a single fact is stated in a complete sentence, then 
two or more facts, until the whole description is given 
in connected discourse. These descriptions are fol- 
lowed by written narrations of incidents, by the repro- 
duction of preceding lessons, and by writing out at least 
one of the topics of the regular school lessons daily. 

In the more advanced classes these written exercises 
consist of the results of original investigations in nat- 
ural history, of historical and philosophical sketches 



GENERAL COURSE OF STUDY. 293 

derived from tlie study of books, and, finally, of essays, 
embodying the results of reflection and thought. 

In all the special language-lessons the pupils are 
taught, first to collect all the facts bearing upon a sub- 
ject ; second, to arrange them in logical order ; and 
third, to express them in well-considered discourse. 

The topics which are made the themes of the for- 
mal written lessons in language are those closely con- 
nected with some branch studied at the time, or some- 
thing needed for subsequent work, or something that 
rounds out or complements the studies already pursued. 
Each of these themes is thoroughly discussed in the 
class as a preliminary to writing ; so that the principle 
is practically enforced that well-arranged thought should 
precede all attempts at systematic expression. 

The written exercises upon these elementary topics 
serve as a guide to all subsequent logical arrangement of 
thought ; show the relations that exist between thoughts 
that are usually presented in a disconnected and frag- 
mentary way ; and fix them in the memory more per- 
manently by the process of philosophic association. 

The subject " Present History " is designed to make 
the pupil intelligent in regard to the questions and 
events that most vitally affect society at the present 
time. The study commences in his own neighborhood, 
extends to the State and nation, and it is finally made 
to embrace all great questions which are of national 
importance in the principal countries of the world. 

Through several grades of the intermediate and 
senior departments, the leading occupations of men are 
made the basis of written exercises. This study leads 
to a knowledge of the details of the several branches 



294r PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 

of industry, to their classification, and to a considera- 
tion of their relative importance. In the philosophic 
summary it is shown how each has grown out of human 
needs and desires, and how the peculiar development 
of each has been largely determined by outward condi- 
tions and circumstances. 

In the advanced course, after the student has had 
an opportunity to become acquainted with the various 
branches of elementary science and of history, and is 
somewhat conversant with the operations of mind, he 
takes for the subject of his essays the principles and his- 
torical development of art, including architecture, paint- 
ing, sculpture, music, and poetry. His attention is 
lastly called to philosophy, its history, and the charac- 
teristics of the different systems of both ancient and 
modern times. 

The technical details of language, including reading, 
spelling, the use of capitals, and punctuation, are pro- 
gressively taught in exercises extending through the en- 
tire elementary course. 

Grammar and Ehetoric. — ^Language, as a science, is 
treated in the ninth grade, at which time pupils are 
supposed to have arrived at a state of intellectual devel- 
opment sufficient to enable them to comprehend the 
principles of grammar. This is followed by rhetoric in 
the next grade, and, lastly, by an exercise in the analy- 
sis of words. 

In the latter exercise the pupil is made familiar with 
the results of modern philological research in regard to 
the formation of words and the growth of language. 
By the careful study of his own vernacular, he obtains 
a knowledge of the roots derived from all the languages 



GENERAL COURSE OF STUDY. 295 

whicli enter into the English ; lie gets tlie nice and dis- 
criminating use of words which is usually sought in the 
study of a foreign language ; and he acquires the power 
of etymological analysis which will be of great worth 
to him in practical life, and in the continuation of lin- 
guistic studies. A study of this kind, while it cannot 
take the place of a thorough culture in the classic Ian-, 
guages, will be found an excellent preparation for such 
culture, and it will be found of much greater practical 
value than superficial classic study. 

Mathematics. — The mathematical branches serve to 
weigh and measure science. By means of them all 
quantitive relations become known. Though directly 
derived from the concrete sciences, and subordinate to 
them, they are indispensable to the complete mastery of 
these sciences ; and throughout the entire school-course 
their pursuit should exactly keep pace with that of the 
sciences. 

The practice of allowing the mathematical studies 
to monopolize the time devoted to study, or to be pur- 
sued greatly in advance of the sciences in which they 
have their origin, or to the development of which their 
chief value is owing, is not encouraged. 

Course in Mathematics. — In the primary grades the 
elements of numbers are introduced by the means of 
objects, and the attention is directed to simple combina- 
tions until the fundamental operations of arithmetic are 
thoroughly mastered. The exercises for practice in this 
department are principally derived from work previous- 
ly done, and are made to exemplify the lessons in other 
subjects pursued at the same time. 

Throughout the entire school-course, the principle of 



296 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 

coordinating mathematical laws and the concrete sci- 
ences bj means of practical examples is carried out as 
far as possible. 

The arithmetic drill derived from the thorough mas- 
tery of the ordinary practical arithmetic is considered 
sufficient in this direction, and the curiosities of num- 
bers so frequently exhibited in the so-called higher arith- 
metic are wholly omitted. 

The applications of mmibers to practical problems 
involving the reasoning processes found in our ordinary 
mental arithmetics are placed in the last two terms of 
the senior department, at a time when the pupils have 
attained a development sufficient to perform the work 
without any unnatural strain upon their faculties. 

The practice of placing such exercises in primary 
and intermediate grades is believed to be pernicious, in- 
asmuch as it appeals to faculties which are usually not 
ripe for such uses until a later period ; it takes time 
which can be more profitably spent in other directions ; 
and it requires much more time to master the study than 
would be necessary if postponed to the proper period. 

In the academic course, algebra, geometry, and trig- 
onometry are thoroughly pursued as far as their funda- 
mental principles are concerned, and each step is illus- 
trated by practical examples which serve to connect daily 
experience with scientific results. The principles of 
geometry and trigonometry are applied to practical sur- 
veying, to mensuration, and to mechanics and astronomy, 
sufficiently to illustrate the elements of these sciences. 

^Esthetics. — In a complete philosophical system of 
education, the cultivation of the taste to an appreciation 
of the beautiful and of the activities, so that the ideas 



GENERAL COURSE OF STUDY. 297 

of beauty may be embodied in concrete forms, is con- 
sidered of equal importance to the cultivation of the 
mental and moral faculties to an appreciation of the 
true and the good respectively. The attainment of tbe 
beautiful is the final outcome of all the activities rather 
than special development in any given direction. 

Course in Esthetics. — Esthetic culture in the di- 
rection of manners is promoted by attention to general 
politeness, to grace in attitude, and pleasant tones in 
speech ; to the suppression of vulgarity and coarse con- 
duct, and to the formation of such habits as will always 
respect the personality of others. 

Esthetic culture is also sought to be promoted by 
attention to neatness of person and dress, to the form 
and fitness of dress, and its general adaptation to its 
uses ; to color in dress, and personal decorations ; to the 
care and arrangement of the furniture in the school- 
room ; and to the correspondence and harmony of all 
the articles which are essential to our daily comfort — a 
condition over which we have control. In this connec- 
tion the use of flowers, and such other simple means of 
decoration as may be within the reach of all, may be 
made efficient help. 

Literature. — The same end is also kept constantly 
in view in all purely literary studies. The pupil is so 
directed as to see the beauty of noble thought and ac- 
tion, and also the beauty of the literary forms in which 
such thoughts and actions are embodied by poets and 
the great masters of literature. 

Drawing. — The education of the hand, so that it 
may be made to faithfully and rapidly execute the man- 
date of the will, is considered one of the most impor- 



298 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 

tant ends of education. In the present school-course 
this discipline of the hand is sought by means of exer- 
cises in penmanship and drawing. 

In penmanship pupils are made familiar with the 
exact form and position of every letter, and then they 
have sufficient practice to secure legibihty and rapidity 
of execution. 

Drawing is valued as a means of exactly expressing 
ideas in form, of educating the eye and hand, and as an 
aid to the higher culture of art. The drawing-exer- 
cises have been arranged to correspond with the other 
branches pursued at the same time, so that drawing may 
be made an auxiliary to science, and the science made 
to stimulate drawing. 

Pupils are taught to draw directly from objects, and 
to make such combinations of familiar forms as to lay 
the foundation of creative art. 

The practical value of drawing is also considered, 
and the exercises are made to extend into almost every 
department of science and industry. The discipline 
gained by the practice of drawing is of more use daily, 
in almost every vocation, than that of any other school- 
exercise. To the teacher it is invaluable as a means of 
illustrating nearly every lesson which he may be called 
upon to give. 

Music. — Singing as a branch of aesthetic culture 
should be practised in every department of the school. 
In the primary department the singing-exercises should 
consist of melodies that will give pleasure to the pupils ; 
that will progressively cultivate the musical taste ; that 
will furnish the means for appropriate musical drill ; 
and that wiU promote the general harmony of the school- 



GENERAL COURSE OF STUDY. 299 

room. In the liigher departments the art of music 
should be continued, and the science of music should 
be introduced by a series of thoroughly objective les- 
sons. 'No common-school education should be consid- 
ered complete unless it includes the scientific elements 
of music, as well as the art of singing. 

Calisthenics. — The value of calisthenic exercises in 
promoting health and intellectual vigor has long been 
conceded, but beyond this they should be regarded as of 
great importance in their relations to aesthetic culture. 
By means of the variety of exercises the muscles are 
harmoniously developed, and are made to directly re- 
spond to the mandates of the will. By means of the 
rhythmic nature of the exercises there results rhythm 
of motion, which is a large factor in grace both of mo- 
tion and attitude. 



PRIMARY DEPARTMENT. 

General Description. — The studies of the three 
grades which constitute the primary department are 
arranged as follows : 

First. — The exercises are aU objective, training the 
perceptive powers, and storing the mind with the knowl- 
edge most necessary for future use. 

Second.— A% much as possible the pupils are required 
to handle the objects of study for the purpose of bring- 
ing muscular training to the aid of perception, and of 
making the impression more deep and lasting. 

Third. — ^A great variety of exercises is introduced, 



300 miNClPLES AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 

SO that attention is continually awakened, and the weari- 
ness resulting from monotony is avoided. 

In conducting each exercise the teacher should have 
a distinct end in view, and should make such prepara- 
tion beforehand as may be necessary to secure this 
end. Every lesson should be a step in advance, and, 
falling short in this respect, it should be considered a 
failure. 

Keading-exercises may be introduced by either the 
word or the sentence method. An idea or thought is 
first developed ; and, after the pupil has become inter- 
ested in it, the word or the sentence expressing it may 
be given. The names and the powers of the letters 
should be learned incidentally, while the attention is 
principally directed to some item of real knowledge. 

Each sentence read should be the embodiment of a 
thought which the pupil thoroughly understands, and 
should be delivered precisely as it should be spoke^. 
The practice of allowing the words of a reading-lesson 
to be pronounced separately should never be permitted. 
Attention to this matter will prevent the monotonous 
and conventional drawl in reading which is often con- 
sidered inseparable from school-work. 

The spelling-lessons should contain the words ordi- 
narily used by the pupils, and such new words as are 
necessary to express the new ideas which are developed. 

The practice of learning words greatly in advance 
of their use is not encouraged, as it takes time which 
can be spent to better advantage ; it turns the attention 
from ideas to words ; it puts an unnatural strain upon 
the retentive faculties by appealing to arbitrary memory 
alone \ it fills the mind with a kind of knowledge wholly 



GENERAL COURSE OF STUDY. 301 

useless ; and it becomes a serious obstacle in the way of 
acquiring necessary spelling in a rational way. 

In this department the various studies are grouped 
under the heads of ^Natural Science, Language, Mathe- 
matics, and Esthetics. In the J^atural Science group, 
the studies are really related object-lessons leading into 
the sciences. All that relates to philosophy or the hu- 
manities is found connected with science and language. 

Besides the spontaneous plays of the children, which 
should be permitted and encouraged, regular exercises 
should be introduced at the very first and continued 
daily throughout this department. These exercises 
should take the form of rhythmic calisthenic move- 
ments, set to music or accompanied by counting. This 
will be found a pleasant recreation, producing relief by 
change from study or recitation. Besides the enjoy- 
ment which it gives, it will be found valuable in sup- 
plementing play in the full exercise of the muscles, and 
in giving grace and flexibility to movement, thus con- 
tributing to both physical and aesthetic culture. 

Every ungraded school, and every primary depart- 
ment of a graded school,^ should be supplied with charts 
for reading-lessons ; blocks for building ; inch, foot, and 
yard measures for each pupil in the class, and a rod- 
measure, made of strong twine ; a gill, pint, quart, gal- 
lon, and peck measure, and a box of sand to use with 
them ; a balance, with the weights of the several 
denominations of avoirdupois, troy, and apothecaries' 
weight ; a cubic foot, made up of twelve parts, each one 
an inch thick ; and a box of forms containing the regular 
geometric surfaces and solids. These things are all 
essential to give pupils definite and practical ideas in 



302 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 

regard to form and extension. The wliole outlay 
need not exceed ten dollars, and this will te repaid 
a hundred-fold in the saving of time effected by their 
use. 

FIEST GKADE. 

First, or Autumn Teem, 
natural science. 

Lessons in Plants. — ^Leaves, form, structure, names. 
In plant-lessons the teacher first calls attention to the 
general form of the leaf, and then to its principal parts. 
The names of the parts are given, and the pupils are 
directed to apply these names to the parts of other 
leaves. The edges and the venation of the leaves are 
next pointed out. As the different ideas in regard to 
leaves are developed, the pupils are directed to find 
specimens illustrating them, and the subject is contin- 
ued until all the common leaves have been examined 
and described. 

Lessons in Animals. — ^Parts of the human body: 
trunk, upper limbs, lower limbs, head, neck, hands, feet, 
eyes, ears, nose, etc. Hands and feet compared. The 
dog, the cat : parts compared. 

Lessons in Place. — The place and relative position 
of objects upon the table and in the room. Eepre- 
sentation upon the blackboard, 

LANGUAGE. 

Oral Exercise. — One familiar object examined and 
described each day, giving the parts, their names, and 
number. 



GENERAL COURSE OF STUDY. 303 

Reading. — "Words and sentences from chart and 
blackboard. 

Sjpelling. — ^ITames of the letters introduced incident- 
aUy. 

Writing. — All the words of the lesson printed upon 
the slate. 

MATHEMATICS. 

Lessons in Form. — Surface : kinds of surface, divis- 
ions of surface or faces, edges, comers. The terms 
point and line developed and applied. 

Lessons in Size. — Development of the general terms 
of size : such as large and small, long and short, broad and 
narrow, thick and thin, deep and shallow, high and low. 

Lessons in Nurnher. — Counting : combination of 
addition and subtraction to 10, with objects. 

ESTHETICS. 

Drawing. — Inventive drawing introduced by the 
use of sticks. Combinations of two, three, four, and 
^NQ lines. 

Singing. — Daily singing-exercises by all the pupils 
in the room. The music should consist of simple melo- 
dies that the children can easily learn and take pleasure 
in singing. Several tunes adapted to marching should 
be learned and sung to accompany the calisthenic 
exercises. 

Second, oe "Wintee Teem. 

natueal science. 

Lessons in Animals. — The dog and cat reviewed. 
The cow and horse described and compared. The 



304 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 

terms herhivorous and carnivorous distinguislied and 
applied. 

Lessons in Color. — The primary colors, red, yellow, 
and blue, developed and applied. 

Lessons in Place. — Direction developed. Eight 
and left, front and back, np and down. Parts of the 
room : walls, ceiling, floor. Direction of these points. 
Points of direction : east, west, north, south, northeast, 
southwest, northwest, southeast. The terms cardinal 
and semi-cardinal given and applied. 

LANGUAGE. 

Oral Exercises. — Description of objects, their parts 
and number of parts continued daily. Summary of 
description given by pupils in connected discourse. 
Lessons given by teachers reproduced by pupils. En- 
couragement given to free conversation by the pupil. 

Heading. — ^Words and sentences from chart and 
blackboard continued. First Keader commenced. 

Spelling. — Spelling by copying the reading-lesson 
from the chart or book. Each new word thoroughly 
learned when first introduced and used. 

Writing. — The words of the reading-lessons printed 
upon the slate. 

MATHEMATICS. 

Lessons in Form. — Lines : straight and curved, verti- 
cal, horizontal, and oblique. Angles : right, acute, obtuse. 

Lessons in Size. — Terms denoting size reviewed. 
Inch and foot measures introduced and practically used. 
Their relative size discovered by the pupils. 

In this exercise an inch-measure should be put into 
the hands of each pupil in the class. The teacher 



GENERAL COURSE OF STUDY. 305 

should direct the pupils to look at the measure, and 
then put it out of sight ; next, to tear from strips of 
paper, prepared for the purpose, a piece as long as the 
measure ; then, to compare the piece with the measure. 
'Next, the pupil may draw a line upon the blackboard 
as long as the measure ; and when he can do this with 
tolerable accuracy, so that he has a definite idea of the 
length of the measure, the name inch may be given to it. 

By putting together twelve of the inches the idea 
of foot may be developed, the name given, and each 
pupil supplied with a foot rule. In like manner the 
ideas of a yard and a rod may be developed and the 
names given. A yard and a rod measure should be given 
the class, and the pupils should be instructed in their 
use in practically measuring things in and about the 
school-room. 

Lessons in Number. — Combination by multiplication 
and division to 10, with objects. 

ESTHETICS. 

DroAJoing, — Inventive drawing continued, combina- 
tions of lines not exceeding ten. Applications of the 
same number of lines, to form the outline of familiar 
objects. 

Singing. — Daily exercises in singing continued, new 
tunes learned. 

Thied, oe SpEiNa Teem. 

NATUEAL SCIENCE. 

Lessons in Plants. — Stems, branches, roots and bark 
examined and described. Different kinds compared and 
classified. 



306 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 

Lessons in Animals. — The sheep and other domes- 
tic animals described and compared with those studied 
during the previous term. The rabbit, the squirrel, and 
the rat examined and compared. The term rodent de- 
veloped. 

In conducting the exercise giving the lessons upon 
animals, the animal itself should be brought before the 
class at first. By a little attention a cat or a dog may 
be procured, and perhaps a rabbit. When animals can- 
not be brought into the school-room, the pupils may be 
directed to observe such as they know, and with the 
others recourse may be had to pictures. Whenever a 
lesson is given upon the horse, or the cow and the like, 
the teacher may ask questions to be answered the next 
day, encouraging the pupils to observe and to describe 
the results of their observation. 

Lessons in Place. — The positions of the different 
parts of the room reviewed. The place and position of 
objects in the room given, and a map of the room and 
its contents drawn upon the blackboard. 

LANGUAGE. 

Oral Exercises. — Description of objects continued 
daily. The position and uses of parts of objects de- 
veloped and described. Pupils relate incidents which 
they have observed. Stories related by teachers . and 
reproduced by pupils. 

Heading. — First reader completed. Special atten- 
tion given to distinctness of articulation, natural inflec- 
tions, and pleasant tones. 

Spelling. — All new words examined and spelled 
when introduced. 



GENERAL COURSE OF STUDY. 307 

Writing. — ^Writing words on slate continued. Script 
letters gradually introduced in place of the printed char- 
acters. Description of objects written hj giving a sin- 
gle fact first, and by combining facts afterward. 

MATHEMATICS. 

Lessons in Form. — Surfaces reviewed. Triangles 
developed, formed, classified and named : Hight-angled 
triangles, acute-angled triangles, and obtuse-angled tri- 
angles. 

Lessons in Size. — Inch and foot measures reviewed ; 
yard and rod measures developed and used in actual 
work. The methods of doing this work are described 
in the lessons of last term. With these measures the 
pupils may be instructed to find the length of the 
benches, table, and other articles of furniture, and the 
length and breadth of the schoolroom. The actual per- 
formance of this work will afford them an agreeable 
occupation, and will serve to impress the ideas of ex- 
tension and distance permanently upon their minds. 

Lessons in Numbers. — Combinations of numbers to 
10 reviewed. Use of figures. ISTumbers written to 100. 

ESTHETICS. 

Drawing. — Inventions with straight lines continued. 
Angles developed in the form lesson of the last term 
reviewed, classified, and made the basis of original com- 
binations. 

Singing. — Daily exercises in singing continued. It 
is a good practice to open the school by singing, and to 
sing at any time when the pupils appear weary and in- 
disposed to give attention to what is going on. 



308 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 

SECOND GKADE. 

EiEST, OR AuTiJMX Teem. 

NATIJEAL SCIENCE. 

Lessons in Plants. — Garden vegetables: IN'ames, 
forms, uses. The parts of eacli used for food : Eoots, 
as of beets and onions; tubers, as of potatoes; stalks, 
as of celery and rhubarb ; leaves, as of spinach and cab- 
bage ; fruit, as of berries ; seeds or grain, as of corn. 
The examination of all the common garden vegetables 
will be sufficient for a daily exercise throughout the 
term. The interest of the pupils may be increased by 
having the real objects before them. 

Lessons in Animals. — The hen, the turkey, the 
goose, the duck — other known birds. Each described 
and compared with the others. Birds compared with 
mammals, their likenesses and unlikenesses. 

Lessons in Place. — ^Exercises in direction continued 
and extended. Actual measurements made. Ideas of a 
scale developed. Map of schoolroom drawn to a scale upon 
the blackboard. 

LANGUAGE. 

Oral Exercises. — Description of objects continued, 
with special reference to qualities. Ideas discovered by 
the examination of objects, such as odorous, fragrant, 
pliable, porous, fibrous, brittle, flexible, elastic, and the 
like. The names of these qualities developed and used. 
Stories reproduced. Incidents related. Mistakes in pro- 
nunciation, in the use of words, or in the construction of 
sentences, criticized by teacher and corrected by pupil. 

Beading. — Second reader commenced. All lessons 



GENERAL COURSE OF STUDY. 309 

should be read witli animation and in natural tones. 
The attention of the pupils should be constantly di- 
rected to the thought which the words express, rather 
than to the words themselves. Mechanical reading 
should never be permitted. 

Spelling. — Each new word spelled as before. Care 
should be taken that the spelling be correctly copied 
from the outset, and that pupils never see words mis- 
spelled, so that impressions of false orthography shall 
not be made upon the mind. 

'Writing, — Descriptions of simple objects, which be- 
fore have been orally given, written out completely. 
During the first year it is well for the pupils to copy the 
forms of the printed character, so as to impress the forms 
more quickly upon their minds. In the last term of the 
year, it would be well to have the Roman and script 
letters represented side by side upon a chart, or written 
upon the blackboard, so that the pupils may gradually 
adopt the latter. From the commencement of the second 
grade onward, the script letter alone should be used in 
writing. 

MATHEMATICS. 

Lessons in Form. — ^Rectangles developed, formed, 
classified and named. Parallelograms, trapezoids, and 
trapeziums developed. 

Lessons in Size. — Measures of capacity : gill, pint, 
quart, and gallon introduced, with practical exercises in 
measuring sand or some like substance. The relative 
size of the different measures discovered by the pupils. 

Lessons in Number. — Addition and subtraction ta- 
bles to 5. Decimations to 100. The use of the signs 
plus, minus, and equality. 



310 PRINCIPLES AND PEACTICE OF TEACHING. 
iESTHETICS. 

Drawing. — Inventions continued. Triangles re- 
viewed and made the bases of new combinations. Rep- 
resentation of familiar objects in outline by means of 
lines and triangles. 

Singing. — Daily singing simple airs continued. 
Singing with calisthenics. New tunes learned. 

Second, or Winter Teem, 
natural science. 

Lessons in Animals. — ^Review of known mammals. 
Lessons continued by means of pictures. The lion, 
tiger, elephant, zebra, deer, bear, monkey. General 
classification of mammals. This instruction needs be 
based upon what the pupil has seen in known animals. 
"With the knowledge of a cat, derived from observation, 
and by the aid of pictures, he can be made readily to 
understand the form, size, and peculiarities of the lion 
and tiger. 

Lessons in Color. — The primary colors reviewed. 
The secondary colors, green, orange, and violet, devel- 
oped and applied. The way in which the secondary 
colors are produced. Besides the color charts which 
should be in every school, the teacher should procure 
the water-color paints, and, by mixing the primary 
colors, practically show how the secondary colors are 
made. The pupils should do the same thing. 

Lessons in Place. — The surroundings of the school- 
room studied in regard to place and relative position. 
Outside distances measured, and maps drawn to a scale 
upon the blackboard. 



GENERAL COURSE OF STUDY. 311 

LANGUAGE. 

Oral Exercises. — Description of objects in regard to 
qualities continued. Ideas in regard to such qualities 
as combustible, fusible, inflammable, transparent, trans- 
lucent, opaque, etc., discovered and applied. 

Reading. — Second reader continued. Attention given 
to the same points as in the preceding term, with special 
care that the usual bad habits in reading are not formed. 

Spelling. — The spelhng of all new words continued. 

Writing. — Descriptions of objects continued and 
extended. Exercises varied by incidents related, and 
by stories reproduced. 

MATHEMATICS. 

Lessons in Form. — Kectilinear forms reviewed, clas- 
sified, and named. Polygons developed objectively, 
classified, and named. The pea-work of the Kinder- 
garten can here be introduced to advantage. 

Lessons in Size. — Measures of capacity continued. 
The peck, bushel, and barrel introduced, with practical 
applications. 

Lessons in Nurriber. — Addition and subtraction ta- 
bles to 10, with decimations to 100. The practice with 
measures of capacity made the basis for examples in 
addition and subtraction. 

ESTHETICS. 

Drawing. — Inventions continued. Rectangles of 
the various kinds combined. Outlines of familiar ob- 
jects of similar forms drawn. 

Singing.— Dsiilj singing simple melodies continued. 
New tunes learned. 



312 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 

Thied, ok Speing Term, 
natural science. 

Lessons in Plants, — The seeds of plants: form, 
methods of growth, uses, classification. The description 
of seeds made the basis of language lessons. 

Lessons in Animals. — The frog examined and de- 
fined. The terms amphibian and amjpKihious devel- 
oped and applied. Fishes examined and described." 
Comparisons of parts with other forms of animals pre- 
viously studied. 

Lessons in Place. — The measurement and mapping 
of the school surroundings continued. The route of 
each pupil from home to the school described and 
mapped. 

LANGUAGE. 

Oral Exercises. — Description of objects in regard to 
qualities continued. The ideas expressed by adhesive 
cohesive, absorbent, durable, compressible, and the like 
developed and applied. Objects classified as animal, 
vegetable, and mineral. The reproduction work of the 
pupil should be made topical as far as possible. 

Beading. — Second reader completed. Special drill 
upon vowel sounds and pure tones. 

Spelling. — All new w^ords introduced and used 
spelled as before. 

Writing. — Description of objects continued. The 
lessons in animals and plants made the basis of written 
lessons. Special attention given to the form, size, and 
spacing of the letters. The use of capitals in commenc- 
ing sentences. 



GENERAL COURSE OF STUDY. 313 

MATHEMATICS. 

Lessons in Form. — Irregular figures with straiglit 
lines for boundaries. Review of previous work. Com- 
bination of form in connection with drawing-lessons. 

Zessons in Size. — Surveyor's chain introduced and 
used. Its divisions and relations to the measures pre- 
viously learned, explained, and practically applied. 

Lessons in Number. — Addition and subtraction ta- 
bles completed and reviewed. Exercises in addition 
and subtraction maybe based upon the measurements 
made in the lessons in size. 

AESTHETICS. 

Drawing. — Inventions with angles, triangles, and 
quadrilaterals. Figures reproduced from memory. Fa- 
miliar objects drawn in outline. 

Ringing. — Daily exercises in singing continued. 
Special driU upon expression. 

THIRD GRADE. 

FmsT, OR Autumn Term. 

NATURAL SCIENCE. 

Lessons in Plants. — Wheat, rye, oats, barley, maize, 
potatoes, and other home vegetables used for food ex- 
amined and described. Other useful and familiar plants 
examined and described. 

Lessons in Animals. — Lizards and snakes examined 
and described. Large reptiles like the alligator and the 
boa-constrictor described by means of pictures — their 
structure and habits. 

Geography. — Study of village or school district with 
14 



314: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 

maps. Location of streets, principal bnildings, and other 
objects of interest. The conventional characters used in 
the construction of maps introduced and used. 

LANGUAGE. 

Oral Exercises. — Description of objects continued. 
Objects classified as solid, liquid, or gaseous. Qualities, 
sour, sweet, bitter, saline, odorous, aromatic, etc., de- 
veloped and applied. 

Beading. — Third reader commenced. Special atten- 
tion given to the consonant sounds and to pure tones. 

S^pelling. — ^Words of the reading-lessons and new 
words spelled by sound and by letter. The silent letters 
designated. 

Writing. — At least one exercise written out daily. 
Familiar topics discussed and afterward the ideas put 
together and written out. Impromptu work introduced. 
Attention paid to the form of the written work, the use 
of capitals, and the use of the period. 

MATHEMATICS. 

Lessons in ForTn. — Forms with curved outlines, the 
circle, the oval, the ellipse, etc., examined and described. 
Subject developed in connection with the drawing-les- 
sons. 

Lessons in Weight. — A balance used. The ounce 
and pound weight, avoirdupois, introduced, and practi- 
cal exercises given in weighing. 

Lessons in Nurriber. — The multiplication-table con- 
structed to 5. Practical examples in multiplication de- 
rived from the lessons in weight. The sign X intro- 
duced and used. 



GENERAL COURSE OF STUDY. 315 

ESTHETICS. 

Drawing. — Inventive drawing continued. Curved 
lines developed, classified, and used as the basis of com- 
bination. Objects drawn in outline. Figures repro- 
duced from memory. 

Singing. — Singing continued. E'ew tunes learned, 
at least two per month. The musical scale introduced. 

Second, or Winter Term, 
natural science. 

Lessons in Animals. — Birds reviewed, and lessons 
continued b j means of pictures. The eagle, the parrot, 
the crane, the ostrich, etc. Peculiar structure of birds : 
swimmers — waders — scratchers, etc. 

Lessons in Color. — Previous lessons reviewed. The 
tertiary colors introduced and applied. Water-color 
paints used and mixed by pupils under direction of 
teacher. 

Geography. — l^atural divisions. Hills, mountains, 
valleys, plains, brooks, rivers, springs, islands, peninsu- 
las, isthmuses, shores or banks, ponds, lakes, etc., ob- 
jectively presented. From the observation of a hill 
and a brook, the idea of each of these natural divisions 
may be derived, and such observation should precede 
all geographical work in which these names occur. The 
pupil can easily be led to make definitions which are 
approximately correct. 

LANGUAGE. 

Oral Exercises. — Description of objects in regard to 
qualities continued. Objects classified as natural and 



316 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 

artificial. Qualities, soluble, insoluble, sonorous, reflec- 
tive, etc., developed and applied. 

Heading. — Third reader continued. Miscellaneous 
reading introduced. 

Spelling. — The spelling of familiar words, and new 
words as fast as used, continued. The words to be 
copied accurately from books or from tlie board, and no 
opportunity offered for contracting habits of bad spelling. 

Writing. — The practice of writing out one lesson 
daily continued. Particular attention given to the order 
of the thoughts expressed. Impromptu work continued 
and extended. 

MATHEMATICS. 

Lessons in Form. — Geometric solids introduced by 
means of objects. The sphere, the cube, the prism, the 
cylinder, etc. Every school should be supplied with a 
set of blocks representing every variety of geometric 
solid, so that the pupil may become familiar with the 
form, and will be able always to associate the form with 
the name. These names should be applied by the pupils 
to objects in Nature and art which resemble them. 

Lessons in Weight. — The ounce and the pound re- 
viewed. The terms quarter, hundredweight, and ton 
introduced and applied. 

Lessons in Nurnber. — The multiplication-table con- 
structed to 10. Practice in multiplication principally 
derived from the exercises in weight. 

ESTHETICS. 

Drawing. — Curved angles developed. Inventions 
with curved lines and angles. Applications to objects 
with curved outlines. Reproductions from memory. 



GENERAL COURSE OF STUDY. 317 

Singing. — Daily exercises in singing continued. 
!New tunes learned. Exercises in the scale continued. 



Third, oe SpEma Teem. 

NATUEAL SCIENCE. 

Lessons in Plants. — Review of previous lessons. 
General form of plants : trees — slirubs — ^herbs. An ex 
amination of buds, and their gradual development, com- 
parison, and classification. Leaves, their form, structure, 
and names. 

Lessons in Animals. — General review of previous 
work. The name vertebrate developed and applied. 
The several classes of vertebrates — mammals, birds, 
reptiles, and fishes — compared, and lists made of known 
specimens of each class. 

Geograjphy. — The town: hills — valleys — rivers — 
ponds — railroads — roads — villages. ^Neighboring vil- 
lages which the pupils have visited, and the routes to 
them. Map of the town constructed and studied, and 
drawn by pupils upon board and slates. 

LANGUAGE. 

Oral Exercises. — Objects considered in regard to 
adaptation of structure to use. Pencil, slate, book, 
chair, desk, pail, etc. Descriptive and narrative work 
continued. 

Reading. — Third reader continued. Oral elements 
reviewed and classified. 

Spelling. — Spelhng familiar and new words continued. 

Writing. — Daily exercises in description, narration, 
and reproduction. Impromptu work continued. 



318 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 
MATHEMATICS. 

Lessons in Form. — General review and classification 
of forms. Tlie dimension, length, breadth, and thick- 
ness developed, and the terms linear, superficial, and 
solid developed and applied. 

Lessons in Value. — The different denominations of 
United States currency presented objectively. United 
States coin. 

Lessons in Number, — Multiplication-table completed 
and reviewed. Miscellaneous exercises in multiplica- 
tion, principally founded upon the denominations of 
weight and measure. 

ESTHETICS. 

Drawing. — Inventions with curved lines continued. 
Applications of curved lines in representing the outline 
of leaves, flowers, fruit, insects, etc. The drawing-les- 
sons made a review of previous lessons in natural his- 
tory. 

Svnging. — Daily singing continued, l^ew tunes 
learned. Practice upon the scales continued. 



INTERMEDIATE DEPARTMENT. 

General Description. — The course for the three 
grades of the intermediate department is mostly ob- 
jective, differing from that of the primary department 
in being more extended, more minute in particulars, 
and including topics which progressively treat more of 
the humanities. 



GENERAL COURSE OF STUDY. 319 

The language lessons are arranged so tliat expression 
may have the widest possible basis of thought, and, by 
the method pursued, the primary attention is seldom 
turned from the thought to the expression. The skill 
in the use of the language comes from clearness of 
thinking and practice in expression. 

Great stress is laid upon the oral exercises, and 
through them pupils are led out into various fields of 
observation and investigation. An endeavor is made 
to give every pupil the power to clothe his thoughts in 
the most effective possible language. 

In reading, the monotonous drill from the reader is 
broken up by a great variety of miscellaneous reading, 
arranged so as to lead out directly into the great fields 
of thought. The selections are such, also, as have a 
tendency to fill the mind with good images and elevated 
sentiments, leaving little inclination for the perusal of 
demoralizing literary productions. 

The special written exercises throughout the three 
grades are based upon the industries — topics which af- 
ford valuable information ; which are in a great measure 
complementary to the natural sciences ; and which afford 
ample scope for the three indispensable steps in all 
successful written work — collecting, arranging, and ex- 
pressing ideas. 

In the sixth grade, the attention is turned gradually 
away from matter to the forces which control it, begin- 
ning the investigation of causes, which leads directly to 
philosophy. 

In the general analysis of work in this department, 
the special details of sesthetic culture have been omitted, 
not because the culture itself should be neglected, but 



320 PRINCirLES AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 

because the steps to be taken will largely depend upon 
the particular system adopted. 

Drawing should be practised daily tlironghout the 
department. The objective points to be secured are 
manual dexterity in the use of the pencil ; the develop- 
ment of the observing powers by the study and repre- 
sentation of real objects ; and the culture of the imagina- 
tion by combining elements and practically creating new 
designs. To accomplish these ends the pupil should copy 
designs enough to give him the technical manner of rep- 
resenting the forms of ^N^ature and art, reproduce designs 
from memory, draw from dictation, draw real objects, 
and create combinations according to the principles of 
art. 

Music should also constitute one of the daily exer- 
cises throughout the department. All the pupils should 
sing for a few minutes several times a day. 'New tunes 
to the number of three to six should be learned each 
term, and progressive exercises should be given in the 
art of reading music. 

The calisthenic exercises should be continued several 
times a day, from five to ten minutes each time. New 
exercises should be given from time to time, so that the 
interest may be kept up, and so that the muscles may 
receive a varied training. In most schools little atten- 
tion is paid to ventilation, and here it will be found ad- 
visable to have calisthenic exercise at the end of the 
first hour of each session, and the recess at the end of 
the second hour, so that the windows and doors may be 
opened once an hour, to insure a full supply of pure air, 
without endangering the health of the pupils by draughts 
of air. 



GENERAL COURSE OF STUDY. 321 



FOUETH GEADE. 

First, ok Autumk Teem, 
nattjeal science. 

Lessons in Plants. — Leaves reviewed and classified. 
Methods of vegetable growth examined and described. 
The terms evergreen, decidnons, exogens, and endogens 
developed and practically applied. 

Lessons in Animals. — Study of insects : flies — mus- 
qnitoes — bees — beetles, etc. — their general form and 
parts. The term articulates developed and applied. 

Geography. — The weather or state of the atmos- 
phere : hot and cold — wet and dry — wholesome and un- 
wholesome. The terms temperature, moisture, and salu- 
brity, as applied to the atmosphere, developed. The 
comprehensive term climate also developed. The most 
obvious conditions that affect climate objectively pre- 
sented. The winds : their general direction and effect. 

LANGUAGE. 

Oral Exercises. — The lessons in plants and animals 
and geography, topically arranged and recited, furnish- 
ing the principal part of matter for the oral exercises. 
In each lesson special attention is given to precision in 
thought, and to clearness and facility of expression. 

Beading. — Third reader continued. Stories from 
books and papers selected and read by pupils once or 
twice a week. Special attention given to the expression 
of the sentiment or thought. Inflection and emphasis 
the Insults of the proper delivery of the thought. 

Sjpelling. — All new words used thoroughly learned 



322 PEIN-CIPLES AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 

when introduced. Teclinical words plainly written by 
teacher on black-board and copied by pnpil. 

Writing. — One of the regular exercises written out 
in full each day, special attention being given to a fuU 
description of the subject, and the proper arrangement 
of its several parts. The occupations of men made the 
basis of special written exercises. Farm-work : grain- 
raising — ^kinds of grain raised — work necessary to be 
done — ^plowing — planting — sowing — cultivating — ^hoe- 
ing — harvesting — ^processes of harvesting the different 
crops — gardening — ^processes — ^products. 

MATHEMATICS. 

Lessons in Size. — Square inch, square foot, square 
yard, introduced objectively and applied. 

Lessons in Weight. — Grain, pennyweight, ounce, 
pound, troy weight, objectively presented. Keductions 
made the basis of exercises in arithmetic. 

Arithmetic. — Division-table to 6. Writing numbers 
and reading by periods. Review-work. 

Second, or Winter Term, 
natural science. 

Lessons in Animals. — Snails, muscles, clams, oysters, 
etc., examined and their parts compared, and compared 
with animals previously studied. The term mollusks 
introduced and applied. 

Lessons in Color. — Previous lessons reviewed. Hues 
explained and exemplified. The most common hues 
named and applied to familiar objects. 

Geography . — The county : surface — mountains — 



GENERAL COURSE OF STUDY. 323 

JiiUs — ^valleys — streams — ^lakes — principal roads — rail- 
roads — villages. The county map thoroughly studied 
and drawn by each pupil. 

LAI^GTJAGE. 

Oral Exercises. — Topical recitations in the seyeral 
branches continued, and progressively made more com- 
plete in form and comprehensive in matter. An orig- 
inal incident, observed or experienced, related by each 
pupil once a week. 

Beading, — Third reader continued. Miscellaneous 
reading selected by pupils once or twice a week. Stories 
of an interesting and elevating character selected by the 
teacher and read by the class. Pupils taught to observe 
the peculiar manner of expression by cultivated people. 

Spelling. — The spelling-exercises confined to the in- 
troduction of new words as they are demanded for use. 
One or two new words should be learned each day, so 
that the vocabulary of the pupil may be slowly but 
surely enlarged. The meaning of words should be de- 
rived from the development of the idea which the 
words express before they are introduced, rather than 
by formal, verbal definitions. The teacher can deter- 
mine whether a pupil fully understands a word by re- 
quiring him to use it in the expression of a thought. 

Writing. — The practice of writing out completely 
one of the regular lessons of the day continued. The 
special study of occupations continued. Fruit-culture. 
Kinds of fruit : apples — pears— peaches — grapes — cher- 
ries — opiums — strawberries — raspberries — blackberries, 
etc. Domestic animals and their products : horses — 
cattle — sheep — hogs — hens — turkeys — geese — ducks. 



324 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 

etc. — beef — mutton — ^pork — poultry — butter — cbeese — 
wool. Some of the most obvious conditions necessary 
in raising animals. 

MATHEMATICS. 

Lessons in Form. — Regular rectangular forms meas- 
ured, and the manner of finding contents made the basis 
of arithmetical exercises : square — rhomb — ^rhomboid — 
oblong — trapezoid — triangle — hexagon — octagon. 

Lessons in Weight, — Grains, scruples, drachms, 
ounces, and poTinds, apothecaries' weight, introduced and 
applied. Reductions used in arithmetical exercises. 

Arithmetic. — Division-tables to 10. Practice in 
multiplication and division based principally upon ex- 
ercises in form and weight. 

Third, or Spiiin"G- Teem, 
natural science. 

Lesso7is in Plants. — The trunk, bark, roots, branches, 
and leaves of trees examined in regard to their uses and 
relations to each other. The flow of sap and its uses. 
The sleep and decay of plants. 

Lessons in Animals. — A star-fish examined and de- 
scribed. Other similar forms studied whenever speci- 
mens can be obtained. The term radiates introduced 
and exemplified. General review of animals and their 
divisions into radiates, mollusks, articulates, and verte- 
brates. 

Geography. — The county continued. The towns all 
located in their order on the map, and their names and 
relative position thoroughly learned. Climate and pro- 
ductions. The people and their occupations. Officers 



GENERAL COURSE OF STUDY. 325- 

of school-district, township, village, city, and county, 
and the duties of each. The beginning of the objective 
development of civil government. Examples: Who 
elects officers ? What is the duty of the district trustee 
or committee ? Of the township or city collector and 
assessor ? What is the duty of the constable or police- 
man ? Of the justice of peace ? What are the county 
officers ? Who presides at the county court ? What is 
the use of the court ? What other officers belong to the 
court ? What buildings belong to the county ? What 
is the use of each ? 

LAK'GUAGE. 

Oral Exercises. — Topical recitations in the several 
branches continued. An original description of some 
object outside of the regular school-work given by each 
pupil once a week. 

Reading. — Third reader completed. Miscellaneous 
selection continued. Special attention paid to selecting 
reading exercises that contain matter interesting to the 
pupils, and noble sentiments. 

Spelling. — ^Exercises in the spelling of new words 
continued. The meaning of words to be determined 
by their use in sentences. 

Writing. — One of the regular exercises of the school 
to be written out daily. Study of occupations as a basis 
for written exercises continued. Preparation of grain 
and other farm products for food. Milling: flour — 
meal — canaille — ^bran — cracked - wheat — oat - meal — fari- 
na — corn-starch, etc. Baking : processes and products. 
Meat: curing — salting — smoking, etc. Butter and 
cheese: process of manufacture. Condensed milk. 



326 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 

Fruit, its cure and preservation: drying — canning — 
pickling — preserving. 

MATHEMATICS. 

Lessons in Form. — The measurement of rectilinear 
forms continued. The denominations of surveyors' 
square measure presented, exemplified, and applied to 
practical examples. 

Lessons in Value. — The denominations of English 
money presented objectively and exemplified. Reduc- 
tions made the basis of arithmetical practice. 

Arithmetic. — Multiplication and division tables re- 
viewed, l^otation and numeration reviewed and ex- 
tended. 

FIFTH GRADE. 
FiEST, OK Autumn Term. 

NATURAL SCIENCE. 

Lessons in Plcmts. — Trees : maple — beech — birch — 
cherry — sycamore — oak — elm — ash — hemlock — poplar 
— pine — spruce, etc. Characteristic forms of trees. 
Classification : forest-trees — fruit-trees — shade-trees — 
ornamental trees — ^trees valuable for timber, etc. The 
terms indigenous and exotic developed and applied. 

Lessons in Animals. — Food of animals. Kinds of 
food, how obtained. Food most abundant in different 
climates. Adaptation of animals to climate and food. 

Geograjphy. — The State, boundaries, surface, hills, 
mountains, rivers, lakes, climate, productions, animals. 
Outline of the State drawn by pupils upon black-board 
and paper to a definite scale. Exercise in lengths of 
different boundary-lines, and in distance, from one point 



GENERAL COURSE OF STUDY. §27 

to another, across the State in different directions. All 
the natural divisions filled in by the pupils. Questions 
and study from the map made. 'No other work in 
geography can be made so useful as that of map-draw- 
ing. It gives to the mind definite images, and tends to 
fix the relative location of places as no other work can. 
The crude outline first drawn should be succeeded by 
nice and accurate work. 

LANGUAGE. 

Oral Exercises. — Topical exercises in the various 
branches continued. Some plant in the forest, or some 
insect, observed and described by each pupil once a week. 

Heading. — Fourth reader commenced. Short his- 
torical and biographical sketches read by pupils. The 
subjects of each fully developed by teacher, by the use 
of appropriate questions and explanations. Poetic se- 
lections made by pupils and read in class. 

Spelling. — Exercises in spelling principally confined 
to the new words necessary to be learned in connection 
with the several branches. Development from practice 
of the law in regard to the use of the final e. 

Writing. — One regular exercise to be written out 
daily. Study of occupations as a basis of written exer- 
cises continued. Fabrics from which clothing is manu- 
factured. Cotton, linen, woolen, and silk. Cotton — 
kinds — how cultivated ; picking, ginning, baling. Hemp 
and flax — how cultivated ; harvesting, rotting, breaking, 
swingling, hackling. Wool — ^how produced and pre- 
pared. Silk — ^mulberry- trees, silk-worms, manner of 
feeding, cocoons, how treated, winding the thread. 

PenmansJii/p. — Penmanship, as a separate branch of 



328 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 

instruction, may be introduced into tliis grade. Pre- 
vious to this time the formation of letters and the gen- 
eral style of penmanship have been acquired incidental- 
ly, the teacher continually criticising faulty work. In 
schools with a limited number in attendance this prac- 
tice may be sufficient, as the teacher will have time 
to give attention to the writing of every pupil sufficient- 
ly to insure legibility and grace, the two ends to be 
sought. But in large schools distinctive penmanship 
exercises are required, and the first book might with 
profit be commenced at this term, and then the books 
to succeed each other, and the exercise continued ac- 
cording to the progress made. 

MATHEMATICS. 

Lessons in Extension. — The denominations of long 
measure completed: furlong — mile — league, etc. Ta- 
bles constructed by pupils. Reductions made the basis 
of arithmetical exercises. 

Arithmetic. — Special practice in long division. Re- 
view of the fundamental rules, with practical applica- 
tions. 

Second, ok Winter Term, 
natural science. 

Physiology. — Digestion. The digestive apparatus : 
the teeth — incisors — cuspids — molars — hygiene of the 
teeth — the oesophagus — the stomach — ^the stomachs of 
ruminants — action of the stomach — changes which food 
undergoes in the stomach. Carnivorous animals classi- 
fied by their teeth — terridents with tearing teeth : mol- 
lidents with crushing teeth — rodents with gnawing 
teeth — edents without teeth. 



GENERAL COURSE OF STUDY. 329 

Lessons in Color. — Shades and tints developed, and 
the principal ones named and applied to familiar ob- 
jects. 

Geography. — Tlie State continued: the counties, 
names and location — the people — occupations. Princi- 
pal cities : where situated — what determined their loca- 
tion — what is the leading occupation of the people of 
each. The government of the State : the departments 
of government — State officers — State buildings — the 
Capitol — State prisons — State charitable institutions — 
State elections. The study of the map made by pupils. 

LANGUAGE. 

Oral Exercises. — Topical recitations in the various 
branches continued. Some facts in regard to frost, snow 
or ice, or their effects, observed and described by pupils 
each week. 

Heading. — Fourth reader continued. Historical and 
biographical sketches continued. Fine poetical selec- 
tion committed to memory, and recited occasionally. 

Spelling. — Spelling of new words continued. The 
law in regard to the use of ie and ei developed from 
practical examples and applied. 

Writing. — One regular exercise to be written out 
daily. Study of occupations continued. Manufacture 
of cotton and wool into cloth : picking — carding — spin- 
ning — doubling — twisting — weaving — coloring — nap- 
ping and shearing woolens — finishing — calico-printing. 
Leather : tanning — currying. Paper : materials of 
which it .. is made — bleaching — grinding — ^mixing in 
water — collecting in the form of sheets — drying — 
finishing. 



330 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 
MATHEMATICS. 

Lessons in Extension. — The denominations of cubic 
measure introduced objectivelj, exemplified and applied. 
Blocks representing a cubic incb and a cubic foot should 
be used, so that definite ideas of these magnitudes may 
be obtained. Twelve pieces of board, each one foot 
square and one inch thick, would make a convenient 
representation of a cubic foot. One of these pieces 
should be divided into twelve strips, each one inch 
square and one foot long ; and one of the strips should 
again be divided into twelve parts, each one a cubic 
inch. 

Arithmetic. — Prime numbers — ^methods of factoring 
— ^greatest common divisor. Practice in the fundamen- 
tal rules. 

Third, ok Speing TeetiI. 
natural science. 

Lessons in Plants. — Parts of plants used for food : 
roots — stalks — leaves — flowers — fruits — ^pith — ^juice. 
Classification of known plants upon this basis. Com- 
mon articles used for food or in the preparation of food : 
tapioca — sago — sea-moss — rice — cinnamon -- nutmegs — 
mace — cloves — mustard — ^pepper — sugar-cane — maple 
— beets, etc. 

Physiology. — Blood : its constituents — how made — 
how circulated. The heart — arteries — veins — capillaries. 
The changes which blood undergoes in the capillaries. 

Geography. — General review of the State. A brief 
notice of the surrounding States, their size and relative 
positions. The names of the States of the Union and 
their grouping. The ^yq regions of production : grass 



GENERAL COUKSE OF STUDY. 331 

— wheat — corn and tobacco — rice and cotton — sugar. 
Tlie earth considered as a whole : form and size — divis- 
ions into land and water. The continents and grand 
divisions of land, their resemblances and contrasts. The 
ocean, its divisions and branches. At this point of in- 
struction the globe should be introduced, and used in 
connection with every lesson. 

LANGUAGE. 

Oral Exercises, — Topical recitation in the various 
branches continued. Experiments made and some facts 
reported in regard to vegetable growth by each pupil 
once a week. 

Beading. — Fourth reader continued. Items of news 
read from the papers. Interesting incidents selected 
and read by the pupils. Pupils instructed to search and 
find articles upon subjects specified by teacher, to be 
read in class. 

Spelling. — The spelling of all new words continued. 
The custom in regard to the sound of sh, and what let- 
ters are used to express it, and under what circumstances 
each is used. 

Writing. — One regular exercise to be written out 
daily. Study of occupations continued. Conversion 
of the fabrics already noticed into special products. 
Woolen cloth : clothing — ^blankets — carpets, etc. Cot- 
ton and linen: clothing — table-linen — ^bed-linen — cur- 
tains, etc. Leather : boots and shoes — ^harnesses — ^trunks 
— belts — whips — clothing, etc. Paper : writing-paper 
— printing-paper — wrapping-paper — drawing-paper, etc. 
Other products : thread — ^twine — ^ropes — ^matting — ^furs 
— hats, etc. 



332 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 
MATHEMATICS. 

Lessons in Form and Size. — General review of the 
work gone over during the year. 

Arithmetic. — Least common multiple. General re- 
view and practice in the preceding rules. 

SIXTH GEADE. 
FmsT, OK ArTUMN Teem. 

NATURAL SCIENCE. 

Lessons in Plants. — Plants nsefnl for other pur- 
poses besides food. Lnmber: oak — pine — walnut — 
cherry — chestnut — ^hemlock — maple — cedar — rosewood 
— ^mahogany, etc. Textile : cotton — ^flax — hemp — ma- 
nila — -jute. Medicinal: cinchona — rhubarb — aloes, etc. 
Coloring : indigo — ^madder — logwood — fustic — cochi- 
neal-cactus, etc. Beverages : tea — coffee — cocoa — 
mate. Narcotics: tobacco — poppy — hasheesh, etc. 
Mechanical : bamboo — palm-leaves — grasses — broom- 
corn — teasels — ^rattan — cork — osiers — ivory - plant, etc. 
Ornamental : shade-trees — ^plants of beautiful forms or 
with beautiful flowers or foliage. 

Physiology. — Breathing apparatus : the trachea — 
the bronchial tubes — ^the lungs. The relation of air to 
life. The necessities of pure air. The sources of im- 
purity : animal exhalations — ^breathing — combustion — 
stagnant water — decaying animal matter — decaying veg- 
etation. The breathing of fishes and of the lower forms 
of animal life. 

Lessons in Forces. — The air : wind — force of the 
wind — breezes — storms — whirlwinds — tornadoes — wa- 
terspouts — sand - storms — windmills — sailing - vessels. 



GENERAL COURSE OF STUDY. 333 

Gravitation : direction of falling bodies — plumb-line — 
weight — relative weight of bodies — weight of solids — 
liquids — gases — water-level — fluid-level — position of 
fluids of different weight. 

Geography. — South America : outline map drawn — 
position — form — boundaries — mountains — plateaus — 
plains — rivers — climate — productions — minerals — ani- 
mals. 

LAiq^GUAGE. 

Oral Exercises. — Topical recitations continued. 
Once a week several lessons of one branch of instruc- 
tion combined and given in the form of connected dis- 
course. 

Heading. — Fourth reader continued. Description 
of natural scenery selected by pupils and read in 
class, such as Niagara Falls, the Mammoth Cave, the 
Yosemite Valley, the Geysers of the Yellowstone, 
etc. 

Spelling. — The spelling of new words continued. 
Attention given to the different letters and combina- 
tions of letters used to represent the sound of long a. 

Writing. — One regular exercise written out daily. 
Study of occupations continued. House-building. Ma^ 
terials : logs — ^lumber — stone — ^brick. Preparation of 
materials : chopping — ^peeling — sawing — rafting — quar- 
rying — ^brick-making. Processes : carpentering — brick- 
laying — ^plastering, etc. 

MATHEMATICS. 

Lessons in Extension. — The French metric system 
of linear measure. The denominations, and their com- 
parison with the measures in common use. 



334 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 

Arithmetic. — Fractions. Fundamental principles 
objectively presented. Kinds of fractions. Heductions 
of one form to another. Knles derived from the rela- 
tions of division. 



Second, or Winter Term. 

NATURAL science. 

Physiology. — ^Animal heat : how generated — ^how 
preserved — ^heat-prodncing foods — ^how animals are pro- 
tected from cold. Relations of animals to food and 
climate. Artificial protection against heat and cold. 
Clothing: adaptation of clothing to climate — clothing 
worn in different climates — ^uses of different kinds of 
clothing — ^materials — color. Sudden changes of tem- 
perature : effects — ^hygienic laws in regard to tempera- 
ture. 

Lessons in Color. — Definite proportions in color. 
The solar spectrum. Complementary colors. Harmony 
of colors. General review of the whole subject of color. 

Lessons in Forces. — Effect of heat upon air : com- 
parative weight of hot and cold air — disturbance of 
equilibrium — circulation of air — draught — chimneys — 
smoke — ^ventilation. "Weight of gases : bubbles — ^bal- 
loons — diffusion of gases. 

Geography. — South America continued: countries 
— ^people — races — peculiar manners and customs — intel- 
ligence — industries — exports of different countries — 
governments — ^religions — social condition of the people 
— ^works of art and internal improvements. Cities : rela- 
tive size — where situated — ^what determined their loca- 
tion—for what noted. 



GENERAL COURSE OF STUDY. 335 

LANGUAGE. 

Oral Exercises. — Topical recitations continued. 
Combined recitations in the form of discourse continued 
once a week. The oral exercises may be varied by oc- 
casional poetic and prose recitations, care being taken to 
make such selections as will be of interest to the pupils. 

Heading, — Fourth reader continued. Descriptions 
of curious habitations, or of curious implements used 
by man, selected by pupils and read in class. 

Sj>elling, — The spelling of new words continued. 
Attention given to the different letters and combinations 
of letters that represent the sounds of long e and i. 

Writing. — One regular exercise written out daily. 
Occupations continued. Working in wood: cabinet- 
making — bridge - building — shingle-making — basket- 
making, etc. Quarrying : stone for building — side- 
walks — ^monuments — slate for schools and roofing — pen- 
cils. Furniture — ^lime — cement — ^plaster — salt. 

MATHEMATICS. 

Lessons in Size. — The metric system continued. 
Measures of capacity. Comparisons of metric denom- 
inations with measures in common use. 

Arithmetic — Fractions continued. Practice in re- 
ductions. Methods and rules derived from mental anal- 
ysis. Addition and subtraction of fractions. 

Thied, or Spking Teem, 
natueal science. 
Lessons in Plants. — Plants examined in regard to 
the possession of flowers. The terms phenogams and 



336 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 



cryptogams introduced and applied. Lists of plants 
made according to the following scliedule : 



BASE OF CLASSIFICATION. 


CLASSES. 


SPECIES. 


Obaraoter of Stem . . 


C Trees, 
■< Shrubs, 
( Herbs, 




Permanence of Leaves . 


( Evergreen, 
\ Deciduous, 




Nativity 


) Indigenous, 
} Exotic, 




Methods of Growth . , 


j Exogens, 
I Endogens, 




Possession of Flowers . 


^ Phenogams, 
( Cryptogams, 





Physiology. — Artificial protection against cold con- 
tinued. Habitations : devices for warmth^caves and 
underground apartments — advantages and disadvan- 
tages. Heating liouses : fireplaces — stoves — hot air — 
steam — ventilation — ^hygienic laws. 

Lessons in Forces. — Water: flow of water toward 
water-level — force of flowing water — water-wheels. 
Pressure of water — effect of heat upon water. Evapo- 
ration : amount of water in the air — circulation of moist- 
ure by winds — condensation — fogs — clouds — mist — 
rain — snow. 

Geography. — ISTorth America : outline map drawn — 
position — form — boundaries — ^mountains — ^plateaus — 
plains — rivers — ^lakes — climates — productions — animals 
— ^minerals. 



GENERAL COURSE OF STUDY. 337 

LANGUAGE. 

Oral Exercises. — Topical recitations continiied. 
Combined recitations in tlie form of discourse continued 
once a week. 

Reading. — Fourth reader completed. Descriptions 
of curious customs in different countries selected bj pu- 
pils and read in class. 

Spelling. — The spelling of new words continued. 
Attention given to the different pronunciations of ougJi. 

Writing. — One regular exercise written out daily. 
Occupations continued. Iron. Processes : mining — 
smelting — casting — puddl ing — hammering — oiling. 
Products : cast-iron — wrought-iron — malleable iron — 
steel. Special products : cast into stoves, hollow-ware, 
wheels, etc. — roUed into boiler-plates, railroad-bars, etc. 
— ^wrought into nails, screws, bolts, etc. 

MATHEMATICS. 

Lessons in Weight. — Metric system continued. De- 
nominations of weight. Comparison with denominations 
of avoirdupois weight. Review of the metric system. 

Arithmetic. — Fractions completed. Multiplication 
and division. Miscellaneous examples for practice. 



SENIOR DEPARTMENT. 

General Description. — In the senior department 
the instruction becomes more analytical, and it includes 
topics which progressively bring more into use the rea- 
soning powers of the mind. 
15 



338 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 

In science, the objective course in physics is com- 
pleted in the seventh grade. The special objects of 
this course are to give pupils an opportunity to investi- 
gate and reason in the field of causes ; to supply them 
with elementary knowledge of forces, so that they will 
be able to understand other subjects which they are 
called upon to study ; and to prepare them for the more 
extended work upon the same subject in the academic 
department. Physiology is continued and completed 
in the eighth grade. ISTo attempt has been made to 
give to this subject an exhaustive treatment ; but from 
its study, following the lessons upon animals, the pupil 
has gained a general knowledge of animal life, the re- 
lations of the various kinds of animals to each other, 
the structure of the human body, the functions of its 
principal parts, and the laws which must be obeyed to 
insure health. This study is of prime importance to 
those about to leave school and enter upon practical du- 
ties ; and it is an excellent preparative for more extended 
and professional study on the part of those who con- 
tinue in school. 

Lessons in botany are given twice a week during 
the spring term of each grade, the time most favorable 
for the collection and study of flowers. This arrange- 
ment keeps alive the pupil's interest in plants, and pre- 
pares him for the advanced work in the academic de- 
partment. 

Geography is continued and finished. The geo- 
graphical exercises are made to include the facts of both 
physical and civil geography, and the facts and princi- 
ples of astronomical geography. A few lessons in min- 
eralogy are given to accustom the pupils to observe the 



GENERAL COURSE OF STUDY. 339 

facts of the mineral world, and as a preparation for ge- 
ology further along. 

In language, the distinctive oral exarcises, as prac- 
tised in the grades below, are omitted, topical recita- 
tions and class discussions furnishing sufficient drill of 
this kind. The reading, after the seventh grade, con- 
sists wholly of carefully-selected literary matter from 
the works of well-known English and American authors. 
The authors named have been selected for the purpose 
of affording a variety of interesting reading to the pu- 
pils, and of leading into the different fields of literature. 

To make this kind of exercise a success, the works 
of these authors must be accessible to the school. When 
provision is made for a public-school library, these works 
may be procured in the place of the trash which is so 
frequently found in such libraries. In case no provision 
is made for the procuring of suitable books, each pupil 
may be able to get at least one volume ; and this, added 
to what the teacher can furnish, will go a great way 
toward making up the number required. 

From the authors named, selections are to be made 
by the pupil, under the direction and advice of the 
teacher, and these are to be read in the class and dis- 
cussed until the general style and spirit of the author 
is well understood. With some of the minor authors 
the teacher may substitute others at his option, but 
the acknowledged leaders of thought should not be 
neglected. The more philosophic writers are omitted, 
their works being reserved for the advanced course in 
literature in the academic department. 

In writing, the occupations of men continue to be 
the basis of written work twice a week, through the 



g40 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 

seventli and eiglitli grades. The materials for tliese es- 
says may be found by observing tlie occupations about 
home, and in books of reference. A good encyclopaedia 
ought to belong to every school. In the ninth grade, 
the general subjects of study furnish sufficient matter 
for the written exercises. 

If this course of study is faithfully carried out in all 
the lower grades, the pupils, by writing at least one ex- 
ercise every day, become so accustomed to expressing 
their thoughts in writing that the word " composition " 
has no terrors for them, nor is there a necessity for ex- 
tra compositions, once in one or two weeks, as is the 
usual custom. 'No special preparation need be made for 
public rhetorical exercises. The daily written work of 
the pupils affords a much greater variety of topics, and is 
treated in a much more satisfactory manner, both in re- 
gard to thought and expression, than though effort in 
this direction be confined to the periods of public dis- 
play. The teacher has simply to make a selection from 
class essays, and, as these have been constantly kept up 
to the highest mark, they represent the best effort of 
the pupil. This course has also its moral bearings, as it 
is exactly what it purports to be : it is not a special effort 
put forth for display, and offers no inducement to com- 
mit fraud for the purpose of seeming rather than of being. 

In the general examination, or public exhibitions, 
the oral exercises should be made to consist mainly of 
topical recitations and discussions of interesting subjects. 
These may be varied by readings and declamations, 
though the value of the latter exercise is usually greatly 
overrated. The objects to be gained in all oral work 
are to give the pupil power and skill in expressing his 



GENERAL COURSE OF STUDY. 34I 

thoughts in the most effective order, and of thinking 
of his subject while speaking or standing to speak. This 
skill comes from the practice of reciting topics in clear 
connected discourse ; and declamation, or the delivery of 
the words of another, can afford little or no aid to the 
work. Still the practice of committing to memory and 
of reciting the noblest thoughts embodied in the most 
beautiful forms by our best writers has a value of its 
own, and should by no means be neglected. 

In the ninth grade, English granmiar, as a special 
study, is commenced and completed. The continual 
practice of the pupils in the use of language through so 
many years gives them the power to complete the for- 
mal study in the time assigned to it. Formal spelling 
is omitted in all the grades of this department; the 
learning of new words and the daily written exercises 
furnish them with sufficient practice in this direction. 
The few rules of English spelling are to be gradually 
introduced, and attention is to be called to the letters 
and combination of letters used to express the various 
elementary sounds. 

Drawing should continue throughout this depart- 
ment, the work to consist in progressive exercises in 
combinations of natural and conventional forms into 
original designs ; the reproduction of designs which 
afford a key to technical expressions, and in drawing 
directly from real objects. In the ninth grade the prin- 
ciples of perspective should be objectively introduced 
and applied. 

The singing-exercises should also be continued daily 
throughout this department. At least two new tunes 
should be learned each month ; and when the pupils 



342 PRINCIPLES AND PEACTICE OF TEACHING. 

graduate into tlie academic department tliey should be 
able to read any piece of simple music at sigbt. 

Tbe free exercises in calistbenics should be continued 
daily ; and light apparatus, such as wands, light clubs, 
wooden dumb-bells, rings, and small bags of corn 
should be gradually introduced. The objective points 
in this drill are the promotion of health, the training of 
the muscles to exact and rhythmic movement, the pres- 
ervation of physical symmetry, and the cultivation of 
graceful and elastic movements. As in the grades be- 
low, the calisthenics should be so timed as to secure 
perfect ventilation of the school-room at least once an 
hour. 



SEVENTH GEADE. 
FiKST, OE Autumn Teem. 

SCIENCE. 

Lessons in Forces. — Adhesion — cohesion — degrees of 
cohesion — illustrations— capillary attraction — nature and 
effect. Motion : inertia — cause of motion — effects of 
motion — direction of motion — from a single force — 
from several forces — resultant motion — effect of sudden 
arrest of motion — friction — circular motion. Centrifu- 
gal and centripetal forces. 

Lessons in Minerals. — Two lessons a week during 
the term upon the metals, their appearance and quali- 
ties. Iron, copper, zinc, nickel, gold, and silver exam- 
ined and compared in regard to qualities. Mercury, 
tin, and antimony in like manner examined. 

Geography. — North America completed: political 
divisions — governments — ^people — origin — race — char- 



GrJNERAL COURSE OF STUDY. 343 

acter — intelligence — industries — habitation — food — 
clothing — adaptation of people to climate and other 
physical conditions. Cities : where situated — why placed 
where they are — natural advantages — artificial helps — 
relative size — ^leading industries. 

LAN^GUAGE. 

^ Beading. — Fifth reader commenced. Exercises 
commenced leading into the study of literature. Speci- 
mens read in class from Jacob Abbott, Dickens, Bryant, 
and Longfellow. Enough should be read from these 
authors to give the pupils a general idea of the style 
and spirit of their works. Biographical sketches 
should be given, and a list of these principal works 
made out. 

Writing. — Occupations of men continued, and made 
the basis of written work. The manufacture of glass 
and pottery : different kinds of pottery — materials used 
— processes — glass-ware — plate-glass — mirrors. Manu- 
facture of brick — pins — needles — watches. Printing : 
type-setting — ^press-work. Such other manufactures as 
may be in the neighborhood, or the description of which 
is easily accessible. The written work for the other 
three days of the week should be connected with the 
science and literature which are being pursued at this 
time. 

MATHEMATICS. 

Arithmetic. — Decimals commenced and completed. 
Decimal expression shown to be the common notation 
extended to the right of decimal point. Decimal oper- 
ations. Applications to United States currency, and to 
the metric system of measures and weights. 



344: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 
Second, ok Wintek Teem. 

SCIENCE. 

Lessons in Forces. — Heat : manner of transmission 
— radiation — conduction — convection — effect of heat 
upon bodies, solids, liquids, gases — conductors of heat — 
non-conductors — heat applied to water — evaporation — 
vapor — steam — ^boiling. Cold : protection from cold — - 
ice — effects of freezing — snow — effects upon climate and 
vegetation. 

Lessons in Minerals. — Two lessons a week upon the 
common minerals : granite — ^limestone — sandstone — 
slate. Principal rocks in the vicinity of the school ex- 
amined and compared. Sufficient attention given to 
this subject to enable pupils, in a general way, to distin- 
guish the different rocks. 

Geography. — Europe : outline map drawn — ^position 
— form — ^boundaries — reliefs — mountains — plateaus — 
plains — general slope — drainage — rivers — lakes — cli- 
mate — productions — animals — minerals — situation of 
different countries — comparison in regard to surface, 
climate, and productions. 

LANGUAGE. 

Beading. — Fifth reader continued. Literary exer- 
cises continued. Extracts read from Whittier, Lowell, 
Louisa Alcott, and Irving. Care taken to make such 
selections as can readily be understood, and can excite 
an interest. Biographical sketches and a list of the 
works of these authors made. 

Writing. — Occupations of men continued, guying 
and selling, called trade. Articles sold from this vicin- 



GENERAL COURSE OF STUDY. 345 

itj. Articles sold by farmers : to whom sold — ^how 
transported. ISTame of those engaged in trade : peddlers 
— tradesmen — merchants. How goods are transported : 
on the backs of men — on horses — mules — llamas — cam- 
els — elephants — ^by wagons — cars on railways — ^boats on 
canals — sailing-vessels and steamships on lakes, rivers, 
and the ocean. Trade on a large scale called commerce. 

MATHEMATICS. 

Arithmetic. — Denominate numbers commenced. 
The tables of weights, measm-es, and value, before 
learned objectively, reviewed and extended. Reduc- 
tions ascending and descending. The mental processes 
involved in the reductions clearly presented, and ex- 
planations made in accordance with them. Rules de- 
rived from processes. 



Thied, or Spedtg Teem. 

SCIENCE. 

Lessons in Forces. — Gravitation : centre of gravity — 
equilibrium — law of stability — weight of the air — pumps 
— the barometer — intermittent springs — ^fountains — ar- 
tesian wells. Pressure of air : at ocean-level — on moun- 
tain-tops — in deep mines. Thunder and lightning : elec- 
tricity — how produced — how conducted. 

Lessons in Minerals. — Two lessons a week upon 
minerals. Observation of the rocks and beds of earth 
near the school. Gravel, sand, clay — how derived ; strati- 
fication — ^how produced. 

Botany. — One lesson a week upon plants. The 
manner in which buds are protected in winter. The 



34:6 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 

flow of sap in spring. Observations in regard to the grad- 
ual unfolding of buds to the perfected leaf and flower. 

Geography. — Europe completed: political divisions 
— governments — people — origin — race — character — 
manners — ^intelligence — ^industries — comparisons of dif- 
ferent nations — ^habitations, food, and clothing of the 
people — adaptation to climate and physical conditions^ — 
exports of the different countries. Cities : where situated 
— natural advantages — artificial helps — relative size — 
leading peculiarities — industries. 

LANGUAGE. 

Reading. — Fifth reader completed. Literary exer- 
cises continued. Extracts read from Halleck, Trow- 
bridge, Willis, and Bayard Taylor. Biographical sketch- 
es given, and lists of their principal works made. Au- 
thors classified as poets, novelists, and historians. 

W7'iting. — Occupations continued. Commerce : 
principal American ports — exports — kinds — to what 
countries. Principal imports : from what countries — ■ 
tea — coffee — sugar — spices — cocoa — cochineal — log- 
wood — mahogany — ^rosewood — oranges — lemons — ^ba- 
nanas — ^raisins — figs — dates — ^manila — rice — cutlery — 
woolen goods — glass-ware — pottery — linen — hemp 
goods — fine cottons — watches — lace — ivory — ebony — 
hides — ^leather — ^lacquered ware, etc. 

The other written exercises should be connected 
with the geography of Europe, the minerals studied, 
and the literary works of the authors read. By con- 
fining the attention to a few subjects, and by co- 
ordinating the various studies so that they may all be 
made to bear upon one point, much greater progress 



GENERAL COURSE OF STUDY. 34.7 

will be made than by giving attention to a larger num- 
ber of studies at one time. 

MATHEMATICS. 

Arithmetic. — Denominate numbers completed. Ad- 
dition, subtraction, multiplication, and division. The 
general laws derived that include simple and denominate 
operations. 

EIGHTH GEADE. 

FiEST, OR Autumn Teem. 

SCIENCE. 

Physiology. — The bones : composition — structure — 
office — examination of the different bones — their form 
— adaptation to their uses — processes — joints. Liga- 
ments : structure — uses. Muscles : structure — ^uses — 
attachments — ^kinds of muscles. Mechanical principles 
involved in the uses of the muscles and bones. Special 
study of the hand and foot. Comparative anatomy and 
physiology of the extremities of the anterior and poste- 
rior limbs of various animals. 

Botany. — One lesson a week upon fruits and seeds. 
The different kinds — how protected — ^liow distributed. 
The parts necessary for germination. Other methods 
of propagation. 

Geography. — Asia completed : outline map drawn 
— position — form — ^boundaries — reliefs — mountains — 
plateaus — ^plains — drainage — ^rivers — lakes — climate — 
productions — animals — minerals — political divisions ; 
exports of the different countries — people — traces — char- 
acter — manners — intelligence. Cities : where situated — 



34:8 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 

relative size — advantages of situation — for what noted — 
ancient cities. 

LANGUAGE. 

Reading. — The reading to consist entirely of literary 
selections made by teachers and pnpils. Extracts read 
from the works of Plelen Hunt (H. H.), Thomas Hughes 
(Tom Brown), T. Buchanan Reid, and Ross Browne. 
Biographical sketches and lists of principal w^orks made. 

Writing, — Occupations of men continued. Hunt- 
ing : kinds of animals hunted — those that furnish food, 
fur, bone, etc. — those that are dangerous — weapons used 
in hunting, clubs, spears, bows and arrows, and guns — 
animals used in hunting, dogs, leopards, ferrets, falcons, 
etc. — ^hunting lions, tigers, elejDhants, etc. Trapping : 
kinds of traps — animals trapped. 

The other written exercises upon topics relating to 
physiology, botany, and literature. 

MATHEMATICS. 

Arithmetic. — Percentage — general principles — base 
— ^per cent. — per centage — relations. Applications to 
different cases. Mental analysis. Rules derived and 
applied. 

Second, oe Winter Tekm. 

SCIENCE. 

Physiology. — Review of the digestive apparatus: 
the intestines — the pancreas — the liver — the bile — the 
lacteals — the thoracic duct. Products of digestion 
merged in circulation. Action of the lungs upon the 
blood — excretions from the lungs. Digestion, circula- 
tion and respiration parts of one system. Hygienic laws 



GENERAL COURSE OF STUDY. 349 

ia regard to the care of the digestive organs : the selec- 
tion of proper food — ^the preparation of food — the time 
for taking food — exercise as promoting digestion. 

Geography. — Africa and Oceanica. Physical feat- 
ures complete as in the other grand divisions. The 
people, their intelligence, industries, etc. Cities. Gen- 
eral view of man in regard to civilization, religion, and 
government. Imaginary voyages made, giving direc- 
tions from place to place, means of travel, and route 
passed over. Trading voyages made, carrying goods 
needed to foreign ports, and obtaining in turn the arti- 
cles produced and exported from the country visited. 

LANGUAGE. 

Heading. — Literary work continued. Extracts from 
the works of Mrs. Whitney, Mary Howitt, Eobert 
Southey, and O. W. Holmes. Biographical sketches 
and lists of principal works made. 

Writing. — Occupations of men continued. Fishing 
and the fisheries : modes of catching fish, hooks, seines, 
traps — ^kinds of fish usually caught — ^fishing for sport — 
fishing for fish — cod-fisheries — mackerel — menhaden — 
the whale-fisheries — kinds of whales — how captured — 
parts of the whale used — other kinds of fish caught for 
their oil. Much valuable information on this general 
subject, and others of a similar kind, may be found in 
the magazines. When such an article is found, it should 
be preserved until such time as it is needed. As the 
pupils become interested in subjects of this kind, they 
will be also on the lookout for magazine articles giving 
them practical information — ^thus acquiring the habit of 
reading and of examining everything that comes in the 



350 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 

way. The other written exercises of this term should 
be upon physiology and literature. 

MATHEMATICS. 

Arithmetic — ^Interest. The four elements, base, per 
cent., percentage, time. The relations of time to in- 
terest. Simple interest, annual, compound. Interest on 
notes. Partial payments. United States Court rule. 

Thikd, oe Speestg Term. 

SCIENCE. 

Physiology. — The skin, its structure and functions. 
Absorbents, excretions. The nervous system : brain — 
structure — ^the spinal cord — general nerves — motor — 
sensory — ^functions of each, l^erves of special sense : 
touching — ^tasting — smelling — ^hearing — seeing. Hygi- 
ene of the nerves : necessities of work — ^rest — sleep — 
recreations. General review of physiology. 

Botany. — Two lessons a week upon flowers, their 
structure and parts. 

Geography. — Special study of United States. Por- 
tions of the several States. The grouping of the States. 
Special adaptation of the different sections to different 
industries. The situation of the principal cities. Why 
they are so situated ; the natural and acquired advan- 
tages of each. The natural highways. The routes of 
travel between different sections. Ideal journeys made. 

LANGUAGE. 

Beading. — Exercises in literature continued. Ex- 
tracts made from the works of Bancroft, Prescott, and 
Bret Harte. Biographical sketches and lists of works 



GENERAL COURSE OF STUDY. 351 

made. Aiitliors classified in regard to topics treated. 
Comparisons made between those in the same depart- 
ment, as between the poets Bryant and Longfellow. 

Writing. — Occupations of men contimied. Special 
kinds of work : banking — care of railroad-trains — sur- 
veying — engineering. The professions : preachers — 
doctors — lawyers — teachers — preparations necessary for 
successful work. 

The other written work of this term should consist 
of essays upon physiology, botany, and literature. 

MATHEMATICS. 

Arithmetic. — ^Application of percentage to various 
business operations : banking — discount — brokerage — 
stocks — exchange — equations of payments, etc. 

OTNTH GEADE. 
FiKST, OK Autumn Term. 

SCIENCE AND PHILOSOPHY. 

Physical Geography. — Consideration of forces now 
in action that are. producing changes upon the surface of 
the earth : flowing of water, in disrupting rocks and de- 
positing debris — waves of the ocean, in undermining 
rocks, in rounding fragments, and in throwing up banks 
of sand and pebbles — currents of the ocean—winds, in 
drifting sand — frost, in disrupting rocks — glaciers, in 
transporting rocks — ^volcanoes and earthquakes, in pro- 
ducing violent eruptions and upheavals — slow move- 
ments of upheavals and depression— vegetation, in 
changing the character of the surface — animal life, in 
building the coral reefs and the like. 



352 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 

The great mountain systems of the world, with their 
slopes forming continents. Outline and reliefs of the 
continents. Drainage and river systems. 

History, — The history of the United States. Abo- 
riginal America. The mound-bnilders, the Aztec races, 
the Indians, manners, customs, employments, habita- 
tions, government, etc. Discoveries by the Spanish, 
English, French, and Dutch. Trading expeditions. 
Settlements : Spanish — French — English — Dutch — 
Swedes — Danes. Motives of the different colonists. 
Colonial governments. "Wars with the Indians. Inter- 
necine wars. General progress of industry, intelligence, 
and the arts, down to the Revolutionary period. 

LANGUAGE. 

Heading. — Exercises in literature continued. Ex- 
tracts from Walter Scott, J. G. Saxe, Motley, and Haw^- 
thorne, with biographical sketches and lists of w^orks. 

Writing. — Daily written exercises upon topics con- 
nected with the studies of the term. Questions like 
the following may receive attention, exciting a deeper 
interest in the studies pursued : Describe the west coast 
of ^Norway, and give reasons for its peculiar structure. 
Describe the sand dunes of France. Describe the Mer 
de Glace of the Alps. "What evidences have we of a 
gradual change in the height of the land % Describe the 
coral islands, and give an account of their probable 
formation. 

Give a description of the city of Mexico at the time 
of the Spanish invasion. Give an account of aborigi- 
nal Indian life. Give a biographical sketch of John 
Smith. Describe the daily life of the Puritans soon 



GENERAL COURSE OF STUDY. 353 

after their first settlement in Massachnsetts. Give a 
sketcli of tlie Acadians as described by Bancroft and 
Longfellow. Describe the League of the Iroquois, the 
nations that composed it, and its form of government 
and religion. 

This list may be indefinitely extended, but enough 
is given to indicate the nature of the work proposed. 
The main point is to have a daily essay, and to insure 
habits of research and investigation on the part of the 
pupils. 

Grammar. — Analysis of language from the bases of 
thought. Sentences. Elements of a sentence : princi- 
pal subject and predicate — subordinate, objective, ad- 
jective, and adverbial. Sentences analyzed. Laws 'of 
construction. Practice of construction founded upon 
these laws. 

MATHEMATICS. 

Arithmetic. — Proportion, simple and compound. 
Comparison of the processes and results of proportion 
with those of analysis. 

Second, or Winter Term, 
science and philosophy. 
PJiysical Geograjphy. — The ocean : extent — waves 
— ^tides — currents. The atmosphere : climate — the 
winds — trade-winds — zones of calms — ^regions of vari- 
able winds — monsoons — ^the simoon — the sirocco. Moist- 
ure in the atmosphere : sources — distribution — conden- 
sation — rainless regions. Vegetation : flora of the 
different zones and continents — laws of distribution. 
Animal life : fauna of the different zones and conti- 



354: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 

nents — ^laws of distribution — dependence upon climate 
and productions. The general distribution of the hu- 
man race. Relations of man to physical nature. 

History. — History of the United States continued : 
the Revolution : causes, events, results — the formation 
of the United States Government — the Constitution — 
j)olitical parties, their origin and changes — the adminis- 
trations — the acquirement of new territory — ^the admis- 
sions of new States — controversies and wars with for- 
eign nations — internal political questions and contro- 
versies — the civil war, its origin, progress, and results. 

LAl^GUAGE. 

Reading. — Literary exercises continued. Extracts 
from Edgar A. Poe, J. K. Paulding, Whipple, and Cur- 
tis, with biographical sketches and lists of works. 

Writing. — Daily written exercises upon topics con- 
nected with the studies of the term. Examples. De- 
scribe tornadoes, the sand-storms of the deserts, and 
water-spouts, and show their connections. Describe the 
flora of the Amazon. Describe the Australian fauna. 
Give a biographical sketch of Benjamin Franklin — of 
Thomas Jefferson — of Patrick Henry. Describe Bur- 
goyne's expedition — Greene's campaign in the South. 
Give an account of the colonial and continental con- 
gresses, and their results. Give a detailed account of 
the Declaration of Independence — of the formation of 
the Constitution of the United States. 

Grammar. — Etymology: parts of speech — inflec- 
tions. Syntax : construction of sentences — laws of con- 
struction founded upon general custom — rules of criti- 
cism derived from the practice of construction. 



GENERAL COURSE OF STUDY. 355 

MATHEMATICS. 

Arithmetic. — Square and cube root. Mensuration. 
Intellectual arithmetic commenced. 

In all the arithmetical work, it is supposed that men- 
tal analysis has accompanied written work ; but during 
the last part of the senior year, it is thought best to 
take up intellectual arithmetic as a separate study, for 
the purpose of training the reasoning powers to exact- 
ness in thought and expression, and of reviewing the 
arithmetical field before entering the academic depart- 
ment. 

Third, ok Spking Teem, 
science and philosophy. 

Astronomical Geograjphy, — Shape of the earth : 
how determined. Size : circumference — polar diameter 
— equatorial diameter — inclination of axis — poles. Mo- 
tions : diurnal — annual — ^I'esults — succession of day and 
night — the equinoxes — the solstices — ^the seasons — the 
tropics — the polar circles — the zones — unequal lengths 
of day and night — temperature of the zones. Methods 
of determining position and distance : latitude — ^longi- 
tude — equator — parallels — ^meridians — prime meridians. 

Botany. — Two lessons a week. Analysis of flowers. 
Classification based on analysis. Ten plants collected, 
examined, classified, and preserved. 

History. — United States history completed. Ex- 
ploring expeditions and results. Progress of agricult- 
ure — of commerce — of internal improvements. His- 
tory of inventions. Schools, their establishment and 
progress. The general progress of science, art, litera- 
ture, and the periodic press. What are the questions 



356 PPJNCirLES AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 

to-day about wliicli people are interested ? What rela- 
tions does tlie United States sustain to other nations ? 
How are national controversies settled ? 

LAJSTGUAGE. 

Reading. — General extracts from American authors, 
with biographical sketches. Authors classified in re- 
gard to character of their works. Comparisons made 
between the works of different authors of the same class. 

Writing. — Daily written exercises upon topics con- 
nected with the studies of the term. These topics will 
be suggested by the daily recitations, each pupil to study 
the subject assigned him in some book of reference. 
The principal topics of this term will be in connection 
with the 'general history and literature of the country. 
The attention given to these subjects has a tendency to 
broaden the intellectual grasp of the pupil, develop in 
him a habit and a taste for research, and excite an in- 
terest in worthy subjects which goes far to exclude un- 
worthy ones. 

Grammar. — The principles of prosody introduced 
and exemplified. Etymology and syntax reviewed. 
Application of grammatic principles to parsing. 

MATHEMATICS. 

Arithmetic. — Arithmetical and geometrical progres- 
sion. Miscellaneous examples. Keview. Intellectual 
arithmetic completed. 



GENERAL COURSE OF STUDY. 357 

ACADEMIC DEPAKTMEN'T. 

General Descrijption. — The course of study in tlie 
academic department has been arranged principally for 
the benefit of those who go immediately from school 
into business or to work. In any graded union school 
this class must constitute a large majority of the pupils. 

The branches pursued are those which not only fur- 
nish the key to successful labor in the different depart- 
ments of industry, but are indispensable in giving such 
a broad view of the whole field of knowledge as to 
afford an intelligent choice of vocation, while they at 
the same time make the mind intelligent in regard to 
the present state of human achievements. 

The methods pursued in this department are succes- 
sively more analytic and critical, dealing with forces, 
causes, and laws. From the consideration of the out- 
ward forms and the qualities of objects, the mind is di- 
rected to the contemplation of abstract principles and 
spiritual laws ; and these in time are applied to every 
activity which affects human weKare. 

In none of the branches treated is the study made ex- 
haustive, but enough is done to give the student the 
full possession of the elements of each, the nature and 
scope of the subjects which each considers; and it 
points out the way by which each may be mastered. 

The physical sciences are continued in all the grades 
of the department, but the humanities are progressively 
made to occupy more of the attention. In the tenth 
grade language exercises are continued as distinct from 
the other branches pursued ; but in the eleventh and 
twelfth grades the language lessons are merged in the 



358 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 

general brandies pursued, as these studies are of sucli a 
character that thej furnish ample scope for thinking, 
and, in consequence, ample scope for the expression of 
thought, both orally and in writing. Occasional exer- 
cises may be introduced in these grades, testing the pu- 
pil's knowledge of the subjects already studied; his 
power of coordinating the principles developed by the 
several studies ; and his ability to deal with a new sub- 
ject whenever presented. Power in this last direction 
is one of the most important of educational achieve- 
ments, as it enables the student to turn the whole of 
the intellectual forces acquired during school life to the 
analysis of any subject or the accomplishment of any 
work which he is called upon to do. 

To those preparing to enter college, or those wishing 
the elements of a classical course, Latin may be substi- 
tuted for constructive language, and rhetoric in the 
tenth grade for English literature and analysis of words 
in the eleventh grade ; and for the history of art, his- 
tory of philosophy and general literature, in the twelfth 
grade. 

Drawing should be continued daily in all the grades 
of this department. In the general course, it should be 
made to include the laws of perspective shading and 
shadows, and practice in copying objects of nature and 
art. In the higher grades, the course may be con- 
tinued in the direction of art proper, or of one of the 
branches of industry, according to the tastes or necessi- 
ties of the pupil, the preliminary work in the lower 
grades being the best preparation for either. 

The music in the department should consist of tunes 
chaste, inspiring, and elevating. It should also include 



GENERAL COURSE OF STUDY. 359 

the science of music, progressively tauglit from tlie read- 
ing of notes to the composition of melodies. 



TENTH GEADE. 
FiEST, OE Autumn Teem. 

SCIENCE AND PHILOSOPHY. 

Physics. — ^Properties of matter reviewed. Mechan- 
ical forces : the lever — the inclined plane — the wedge — 
the pulley — the screw. Gravitation: motion — acceler- 
ated motion — retarded motion — friction — the law of fall- 
ing bodies — resultant motion, etc. Hydrostatics : press- 
ure of water — mechanical advantages — illustrations. 
Hydraulics. Pneumatics : weight of air — pump — ^ba- 
rometer — siphon — intermittent springs, etc. Acous- 
tics : vibrations of the air — sound — ^transmission of sound 
— reflection of sound, etc. 

Civil Government. — J^ature of government in gen- 
eral : evolution — the rule of the head of the family, or 
patriarchal — ^the rule of the strongest, or chiefs — the 
hereditary transmission of power terminating in mon- 
archs — aristocracies — oligarchies — hierarchies — democ- 
racies—republics. The threefold nature of govern- 
ment : legislative — executive — judicial. Analysis of the 
United States Constitution. The source of power. The 
power and limitations of each department of govern- 
ment. The functions of town, county, State, and na- 
tional government. 

LANGUAGE. 

Reading. — ^Extracts from Dickens, Thackeray, and 
"George Eliot," with biographical sketches. Works 
compared in spirit, matter, and style. 



360 PEINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 

Writing. — Present history taken as the basis of daily 
essays. The facts to be given by teacher, or found in 
books, magazines, or papers, by the pupils. What are the 
questions of interest to the public generally in the vil- 
lage, in the county, State, nations? England: politi- 
cal parties — ^leaders — ^political questions — education — 
literature — science — ^industries, etc. France, Italy, Ger- 
many, Eussia, each examined to ascertain all questions 
of present interest, so that news items may be thorough- 
ly understood. 

Latin. — Optional in the place of the written essays. 

MATHEMATICS. 

Algebra. — Through simple equations. 

Second, ok Winter Teem. 
science and philosophy. 

Physics. — Heat : theory — sources — force — steam- 
engines. Electricity: nature — ^how excited — voltaic 
battery — galvanic battery — electric machines — electro- 
magnetism — natural magnets — electric telegraph. Light : 
wave theory — color — solar spectrum — ^velocity of light 
— spectrum analysis — ^transmission of light — ^lenses — ^re- 
fraction, reflection — plane mirrors — concave — convex. 
The eye : its mechanism and functions — vision. 

General History. — Myths of the ancient literature. 
The Aryan race, its origin and spread. The first steps 
in civilization, and the conditions most favorable for its 
commencement. India, Egypt, Assyria. The com- 
mencement of veritable history. Babylon, IN^ineveh, 
Assyria. The Medio-Persian empire. Greece, its an- 
nals, its mythology, its art, its literature. Rome, its 



GENERAL COURSE OF STUDY. 361 

rise, its progress and fall. Eoman art, literature, and 
jurisprudence. Tlie ages of change wHcli followed the 
fall of Rome. 

LANGUAGE. 

Reading. — ^Extracts from Macaulay, John Stuart 
Mill, Carlyle, and Ruskin. Works compared and clas- 
sified. 

Writing. — The written exercises of this term should 
be confined to historical essays concerning events of the 
period of historic study, and to exercises which neces- 
sarily accompany the successful study of rhetoric. 

Bhetoric. — The forms of literary productions. Fig- 
urative language, and the laws of its use. Illustrative 
examples of the use of figures derived from literature. 
Constructive work in which figures are used. 

Latin. — Optional, in the place of rhetoric. 

MATHEMATICS. 

Algebra. — To quadratic equations. 

Third, oe Spkii^g Term. 
science and philosophy. 
Botany. — Analysis of flowers and classification of 
plants. Microscopic study of plants. Twenty plants 
collected, examined, classified, and preserved. 

General History. — The gradual evolution of modem 
nations from the confusion of the Middle Ages. The 
crusades. The Moslem domination in Spain. The in- 
fluence of ecclesiastical beliefs. The Reformation. 
The discovery of printing. The discovery of America. 
The rise of constitutional government in England. 
16 



362 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 

The decline of the Spanish power. Modern France : 
despotism — religions wars — revolutions — military spirit. 
The national consolidation of Italy and Germany. The 
Turkish power : its rise, progress, and decline. Hussia : 
its progress and traditional policy. 

LANGUAGE. 

Beading. — Extracts from "Walter Scott, Coleridge, 
"Wordsworth, Hood, Lamb, and Tennyson. Works com- 
pared and classified. 

Writing. — The daily written w^ork to consist of his- 
torical essays, and exercises connected with rhetoric. 
The historic essays may be something as follows : Bio- 
graphical sketches of Thomas a Becket, Galileo, Gnten- 
berg, Cornelins Agrippa, Eobert Bruce, Christopher 
Columbus, E"apoleon Bonaparte, Frederick the Great, 
Humboldt ; historical sketches of Ehodes, Constantino- 
ple, Malta, Granada, Holland, the Universities of Ox- 
ford, Cambridge, Bologna. Describe the Spanish Ar- 
mada, the trade -guilds of. the Middle Ages, the monk- 
ish orders, etc. 

Rhetoric. — Analysis of style. The canons of good 
taste in style. Elements of criticism, founded upon 
nature of thought and expression. Illustrative exam- 
ples of excellence of style in the different departments 
of thought. 

Latin. — Optional, in place of rhetoric. 

MATHEMATICS. 

Algebra. — Elementary algebra completed and re- 
viewed. Algebra and arithmetic compared in regard 
to methods and principles. 



GENERAL COURSE OF STUDY. 363 

ELEVENTH GKADE. 

FlEST, OR AUTTJMJS- TeEM. 
SCIENCE AKD PHILOSOPHY. 

Chemistry. — The characteristics of the common 
metals reviewed. A few of the more common salts with 
metallic bases examined. Chemical combinations intro- 
duced experimentally, the work being done by the pu- 
pils. Alkalies and acids, simple compounds. Oxygen 
and its combinations. Water and air, constituents, and 
how combined. Chemical effect of heat. The laws of 
definite proportions exemplified from experiments made 
by the students. 

Mental Philosojphy . — Analysis of the mental pow- 
ers, the particular function of each, and the order of 
their development. The best methods of culture to se- 
cure their development in the proper order. The rela- 
tions of the mind to the body, and to other minds. The 
relations of knowledge to mental development. 

LANGUAGE AND LITEEATTJRE. 

English Literature. — An historical view of the Eng- 
lish language. Elements derived from the Celtic, the 
Latin, at the time of the Roman invasion, the Saxon, the 
Danish, the Norman, and from the various modern sources. 
A brief view of the old literature, with special attention 
to the works of Chaucer. The Elizabethan period with 
Shakespeare as its central figure. One or more of the 
plays of Shakespeare read in class, and analyzed in regard 
to sentiment, unity of thought, and expression. The works 
of Bacon and their effect upon science and literature. 
Writing. — Essays upon various subjects connected 



364 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 

with early English literature, and exercises in mental 
pliilosopliy and chemistry. 

Latin. — Optional, in place of English literature. 

MATHEMATICS. 

Geometry. — Geometry introduced objectively, and 
the work of the first three books accomplished, the pu- 
pils being led to make original demonstrations of the 
various propositions. 

Secoi^^d, ok Winter Teem, 
science and philosophy. 

Chemistry. — The atomic theory. The laws of defi- 
nite proportions fnlly exemplified. The new chemical 
nomenclature presented and applied. The laws of 
chemical affinities derived from experiment. Chemical 
reactions and combinations. Chemical effects of light 
and electricity. The chemistry of the soils. Life as 
effecting chemical combinations. Organic chemistry — 
growth — fermentation^ — products — decay. 

Mental Philosophy. — The examination of all the 
different branches of instruction in reference to the 
faculties of the mind which each brings into action. 
The different occupations and professions treated in a 
like manner. From these examinations, general laws 
derived which will serve as a guide to all productive 
thought. The place which the several branches of in- 
struction should occupy in a course of mental discipline. 

language and liteeatuee. 
English Literature. — The rise of Puritanism, and 
its effect upon literature. Milton, his works and their 



GENERAL COURSE OF STUDY. 365 

effect upon subsequent thought. The literature of the 
period of Queen Anne : Addison — Steele — Swift — the 
" Spectator." Pope, his writings and their effect. Samuel 
Johnson, his works, style, and influence upon literature. 
Sir Walter Scott — the " Edinburgh Eeviewers " — Byron. 
The historians : Hume — Gibbon — Eobertson — Hallam 
— Macaulay — Froude. The effect of German literature 
upon English thought. The English literature of to-day. 
Writing. — Essays upon literature, and exercises in 
chemistry and mental philosophy. 

Latin. — Optional, in place of English literature. 

MATHEMATICS. 

Geometry. — The work of the fourth, fifth, and sixth 
books in geometry accomplished, the pupils originating 
their demonstrations instead of learning them from the 
book. 

Thied, oe SpEiKa Teem. 

SCIENCE AND PHILOSOPHY. 

Comparative Physiology. — An examination of the 
lower forms of animal life. Microscopic forms as found 
in the air, in water, etc. Gradual differentiation of the 
different systems, digestive, respiratory, circulatory, ner- 
vous, etc. The forms which the different systems as- 
sume in the different types of animals, radiates, mol- 
lusks, articulates, and vertebrates. Comparison of the 
vital processes of vegetable and animal life. 

Botany. — Two lessons a week. Ten plants collect- 
ed, examined, classified, and preserved. Special study 
of cryptogams. 

Moral Philosophy. — The domain of morals includes 



PHINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 

all possible relations of one tinman being with another. 
Bases of moral action. Human needs resulting from 
liuman existence. Rights founded upon needs. Duties 
resulting from rights. The evolution of negative and 
positive duties. The necessity of labor and the amount 
which every human being should accomplish. The 
morality of cleanliness, order, economy, and intelligence. 
An analysis of the moral principles involved in study, 
recreation, games, work, dancing, lotteries, gambling, 
speculating, selling and drinking alcoholic beverages, 
etc. The morals of trade, politics, and of general social 
intercourse. The application of moral principles in all 
the concerns of life. 

LANGUAGE. 

Analysis of Words. — An historic view of the Aryan 
family of languages. The roots of words and their 
transformations. General law of the interchange of 
letters and sounds. Prefixes and suffixes — ^their changes 
and applications. Lists of words made out illustrative of 
the laws of combination and derivation. The growth of 
the English language, its methods and laws. Illustrative 
history of common words, their origin and transforma- 
tion. 

Writing. — Essays upon physiology and moral phi- 
losophy, and exercises in word-analysis. 

Latin. — Optional, in place of analysis of words. 

MATHEMATICS. 

Geometry. — The ten books of elementary geometry 
completed ; the pupils inventing the necessary figures, 
and performing original work as in the two preceding 
terms. 



GENERAL COURSE OF STUDY. 367 

TWELFTH GEADE. 

FiEST, OR Atjtumn Teem. 

SCIENCE AND PHILOSOPHY. 

Geology. — The principal rocks reviewed and com- 
pared. The arrangement and succession of the rocks. 
Igneous and aqueoTis rocks. The operation of geologic 
forces — ^frost, heat, rain, snow, the wind, glaciers, elec- 
tricity, volcanoes, earthquakes, etc. — ^in effecting changes 
upon the surface of the earth. 

Logic. — Reasoning, inductive and deductive. The 
mental processes involved in each. The laws of reason- 
ing developed and applied to investigations, to indus- 
tries, and to all the affairs of life. 

LANGUAGE AND LITEEATUEE. 

History of Art. — The art of the ancient rations, 
Egypt, India, Assyria, and Greece, as shown in the 
form and decoration of their architecture, and in their 
sculpture. E'atural art the outgrowth of natural char- 
acter and of the surrounding condition. Roman, Goth- 
ic, Saracenic, and Oriental art as exhibited in architect- 
ure. Egyptian, Etruscan, Greek, Chinese, French, and 
English art as shown in pottery. Painting. The great 
schools of the Middle Ages. The Italian, the Flemish, 
the Spanish, and Dutch schools. French and English 
painters. Music, its evolutions and its numerous de- 
partments. Italian and German music. The oratorio 
and the opera. 

Writing. — ^Exercises in geology and logic, and essays 
upon art. 

Latin. — Optional, in place of history of art. 



368 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 
MATHEMATICS. 

THgonometry . — The principles of plane trigonometry 
introduced, exemplified, and applied to practical work. 

Second, oe "Winter Teem, 
science and philosophy. 

Geology. — The works of the various forms of corals in 
building rocks. The mutual effect of geologic changes and 
of organic life upon each other. Paleontology, or the tes- 
timony of the rocks in regard to ancient life. Geologic 
changes, as bearing upon the history and condition of man. 

Astronomy. — Observations of the position of the 
stars, and their relations to each other. Facts in regard 
to position and changes derived from the observation of 
others. The constellations and the names of the prin- 
cipal stars. Right ascension, declination, and parallax. 

Political Economy. — The evolutions of the various 
industries. The gradual changes in the upward progress 
of civilization. From the study of the facts of the his- 
tory of civiKzation general laws developed in regard to 
the direction of progress. How far industries depend 
upon environment. The prosecution of the different 
industries resulting in division of labor and improve- 
ment of products. The limits of division of labor from 
the standpoints of economy and education. Trade the 
necessary result of differing conditions and of division 
of labor. Wealth, intrinsic and exchangeable, how 
produced. 

LANGUAGE AND LITEEATUEE. 

History of Philosophy. — The myths of the ancient 
nations. The gradual change of myths into speculative 



GENERAL COURSE OF STUDY. 309 

beliefs. The philosophic systems of the Greeks : Soc- 
rates, Plato, Aristotle. The ancient schools of philoso- 
phy : the Epicurean, the stoical. The revival of philoso- 
phy in modern times. The French philosophers : Des- 
cartes, Comte, Consin, Malebranche, etc. The German 
philosophers : Spinoza, Kant, Schelling, Heine, Hegel, 
Fichte, etc. The English philosophers : Bacon, Locke, 
Stuart, Hamilton, Mill, Spencer, etc. The rise of mod- 
em science, and its influence on philosophy. 

Writing. — Essays upon political economy and phi- 
losophy. Exercises in geology and astronomy. 

Latin. — Optional, in place of history of philosophy. 

MATHEMATICS. 

Trigonometry. — Spherical trigonometry, its princi- 
ples and applications. 



Thied, oe Spring Teem, 
science and philosophy. 
Astronomy. — Inferences drawn from the facts ob- 
served in regard to the solar system. The geocentric 
and the heliocentric theories. The sun : its position, 
its size, and its motions. The planets : their size, rela- 
tive positions, and motions. The telescope : appear- 
ances of the several planets, and their explanation. The 
rapidity of light. The distance of the fixed stars. 
Comets : their peculiar forms and eccentric orbits. 
l^ebulse : their position and appearance. The nebulous 
hypothesis of the growth of the worlds. The results of 
spectrum analysis in regard to the motion of the fixed 
stars and to the composition of all the heavenly bodies. 



370 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 

Political Economy. — The gradual evolution of trade. 
The means b j which it is carried on, and the conditions 
of its successful operation. The moral principles in- 
volved in its prosecution. JS^ecessities of a medium of 
exchange. ITecessary qualities of such a medium. 
Money, its issue and circulation. The evolution of 
banking. Banks of exchange, of deposit, and of dis- 
count. Paper money, its necessity and the measure of 
its worth. The relations of money to trade. Capital 
and labor, their mutual relations and apparent antago- 
nisms. Employer and employe. Enterprises con- 
trolled by the political power. Stock companies. Com- 
binations of capital. Trades-unions. Strikes, their 
ethics and results. Antagonisms settled only by spread 
of intelligence and the general recognition of economic 
and moral principles. Cooperation, its nature, history, 
and results. 

LANGUAGE AND LITEEATURE. 

General Literature. — A brief survey of the litera- 
ture of the ancient nations, the Hebrews, the Greeks, 
the Eomans, the Persians, the Hindoos, and the Chinese. 
The gradual rise and progress of modern literature. 
The effect of scientific research and of physical improve- 
ments upon literature. The present state of literature 
in the principal countries of the world. 

Writing. — Exercises in astronomy, and essays upon 
topics connected with political economy and general 
literature. 

MATHEMATICS. 

Surveying. — The application of geometric and trigo- 
nometric principles to surveying. 



CHAPTEE XY. 

COUNTRY SCHOOLS, AND THEIR ORGANIZATION. 

CoMPAEATiYE STAE^DmG. — In citj and country tlie 
objects of education are alike, but the conditions of the 
two are so dissimilar that tlie schools are necessarily 
unlike in organization and general methods. The ag- 
gregation of pupils in the city allows of a gradation 
and division of labor quite impossible in the country ; 
and the concentrated wealth of the city gives superior 
advantages in the way of school-houses and all the ap- 
pliances of education. Still there are compensations in 
the country ; and in excellence of results country schools, 
intelligently conducted, approach nearer the highest 
standard of city schools than is generally supposed. 

The low condition of country schools in many parts 
of the country is owing in part to intrinsic defects, and 
in part to accidental causes. The former can be much 
ameliorated and the latter removed by making the 
most of all favoring conditions, and by a wise adminis- 
tration that fully comprehends their needs. 

Advantages. — The advantages of situation possessed 
by country schools will be more and more appreciated 
as instruction progressively approximates to rational 
methods. In the country the study of natural history, 



372 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 

the foundation of all primary instruction, can be carried 
on without cost for material ; and as the children are 
daily brought into immediate contact with J^ature, the 
study may be made doubly interesting and profitable. 
The growth of mind is a slow process, requiring periods 
of alternate activity and rest. The perpetual din and 
motion in the city stimulates mental activity, but there 
is no opportunity for the rest which the quiet of the 
country affords. If the proper means are taken to 
awaken the mental powers, the conditions of health- 
ful mental growth greatly preponderate in the country 
schools. There devolves upon the teacher, however, 
the duty of arousing thought, to prevent the mental 
stagnation which comes from uncultivated perceptions, 
and the narrowness incident to limited experiences. 

Another advantage in country life favorable to schol- 
arship is the general mingling of work and study. Both 
boys and girls have something to do as well as some- 
thing to learn ; and when the work is limited to the 
proper amount, and not pushed to the point of exhaus- 
tion, it becomes a source of additional intellectual vigor. 
Teachers who have had experience in both city and 
country schools, with great unanimity, testify that the 
pupils in the latter take greater interest and make 
greater progress in a given time. This is doubtless 
owing in part to the work, which gives them motive 
and vigor, and in part to the shorter terms of country 
schools. 

Dr. Seguin, the eminent physiologist and physician, 
advocates out-door study as the most conducive to bod- 
ily health and mental vigor. He thinks pupils from a 
very early age should be brought in direct contact with 



COTJNTHY SCHOOLS. 373 

I^ature, and no lesson slionld be given in-doors that can 
be given without. To accomphsh this end he proposes 
to make the public parks of the city great educational 
institutions, where JS^ature may be studied at first hand. 
While this plan may not be practical at present, it indi- 
cates the direction of the improvements which are de- 
manded for education. In the country are found the 
conditions which this improved system of education 
calls for to a much greater extent than in the city, and 
there seems no good reason why country schools may 
not be made to take the lead in reducing these ideas 
to practice. 

Defects. — The greatest intrinsic disadvantage of 
country schools is the limited number of pupils, and 
the consequent impossibility of a proper system of grad- 
ing. Pupils of all ages and degrees of advancement 
meet in the same room, each grade diminishing the op- 
portunities of the other : primary and advanced instruc- 
tion go on together, mutually interfering with each 
other ; and so wide a range of employment is given to 
the teacher that he cannot become an expert in any de- 
partment, and he fails to do justice to any class. While 
these evils are incident to the situation of country 
schools, the ill effects may be diminished by wise or- 
ganization and administration. 

Boards of Control. — That organization has proved 
the most successful which has brought several schools, 
as those of a township, under one board of control. 
The advantages which this system has over that of sin- 
gle districts are a more intelligent management, the 
employment of better qualified teachers, the erection 
of better school-houses, greater care in the preserva- 



374 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 

tion of scliool property, a wiser supervision, and a more 
eqnable distribution of taxes. "When the board is in- 
vested with the power of grading and establishing cen- 
tral schools for the higher classes, and when they exer- 
cise this power judiciously, the greatest inherent defect 
of the country school system is largely overcome, and 
the schools in efficiency are made to approximate very 
closely to the city schools. The teacher may also do 
much to diminish the evils of mixed schools, by reduc- 
ing the number of classes to the minimum, by more 
frequent general exercises, by the adoption of rational 
methods, and by the more general introduction and 
practice of written work. The other evils connected 
with country schools are wholly remediable by the 
State, the district, and the teacher. 

School-houses. — In many parts of the country the 
condition of the schoolhouses and the premises about 
them is a disgrace to the community. A building 
made ugly to the extreme of parsimony in its construc- 
tion, affording no adequate protection from the ele- 
ments, destitute of ordinary comforts within, and want- 
ing in the conveniences demanded by decency with- 
out, is the place where all the children of the district 
are to pass their school-days, and receive the most du- 
rable impressions of their lives. The only satisfaction 
to be gained from a consideration of this matter is, in 
the fact, that improvements are being made, and that 
these conditions, so disreputable to the people who are 
responsible for them, are undergoing a change for the 
better. 

The school-house should be conveniently and pleas- 
antly located, and well built. It should afford ample 



COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 375 

protection from the weather, and it should be arranged 
for the comfort of the pupils. Attention should be 
specially given to the admission of light, and to the 
heating and ventilation, so that a uniform temperature 
may be preserved, and an ample supply of pure air 
secured. At the present time there can be reasonable 
excuse for poisoning pupils with foul air. In other 
respects the schools should be supplied with those con- 
veniences which are considered indispensable to respec- 
table households. 

Ajpjparatus and Boohs. — Another defect in the 
country schools generally is the want of the apparatus 
and books necessary for successful instruction. ]^o 
man would think of employing a farm-laborer without 
supplying him with the tools for farm-work ; and it is 
no less absurd to expect a teacher to do the best w^ork 
without apparatus than to expect a laborer to make the 
best crop without a plough and other farm-implements. 
The neglect in this direction is in part owing to a mis- 
taken notion in regard to the importance of apparatus, 
and in part to the desire to reduce the expenses to the 
lowest possible amount. Economy, however, it is easy 
to show, is on the side of wise and proper expenditure, 
as by it the efficiency of the schools is so greatly in- 
creased. 

Costly apparatus is not needed in the average coun- 
try schools. Most of the things needed to illustrate 
instruction can be collected by teachers and pupils at 
very little expense. The things which are indispensa- 
ble to the best results are a globe, a set of outline maps, 
local maps of the town and county, a large amount of 
excellent blackboard, and a cabinet containing speci- 



376 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 

mens sufficient to illustrate the elements of the different 
departments of natural history, and the different manu- 
factures. The books indispensable are an unabridged 
dictionary, a comprehensive history of the United States, 
a biographical dictionary, and some brief encyclopaedia 
of science. An encyclopaedia of general knowledge, 
freely used by pupils, would so multiply the general re- 
sults of education as to pay for itself each year. After 
the books enumerated have been provided, the expendi- 
ture of a small sum each year will soon procure a valu- 
able library of reference which will be a source of en- 
lightenment not only to the school, but to the whole 
neighborhood. In the selection of books the needs of 
the school should be considered and all trash excluded. 

8hoTt Terms. — Another of the disabilities under 
which the majority of the country schools labor is the 
short terms of instruction. While the city schools usu- 
ally continue in session ten months each year, the coun- 
try schools average but little more than one-half of that 
time. The opportunity for education is thus less than 
it should be, and intelligence is correspondingly less. 
By irregularity of attendance also there is a failure to 
make the best of the opportunities offered, and the 
amount of possible good to be derived from the schools 
is still further diminished. 

The sessions that would seem most suitable to the 
conditions of the country are a term of eight weeks be- 
ginning about the 1st of September, a session of twenty 
weeks beginning from the 1st to the 10th of I^ovember, 
and a session of eight weeks beginning about the 1st of 
May. This would give thirty-six weeks of school, which 
could be extended to forty weeks by making the inter- 



COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 377 

mediate vacations less. By this arrangement tlie long 
continuous term is in winter when there is the least de- 
mand for labor, and the long vacation is in midsummer, 
so as to avoid exposure of children to the great heat and 
to give teachers time for recreation in the form of rest 
and study. Since the experiment of Agassiz, at Peni- 
kese, summer schools for teachers are springing up all 
over the country, and the terms of the country schools 
should be so arranged that country as well as city teach- 
ers may be able to attend them. 

Change of Teachers. — In most country districts the 
older pupils attend school only in winter, and the sum- 
mer term is made up mostly of the younger ones, con- 
stituting in reality a primary department. This condi- 
tion of affairs has given rise to the custom of changing 
teachers each term, employing a higher-priced teacher in 
winter than in summer. This custom works injury to 
the schools in numerous ways. No two teachers have 
exactly the same methods of instruction, and it always 
takes time for pupils to get accustomed to the new meth- 
ods, and hence there is a waste of time at the advent of 
every new teacher. At the close of the short term the 
teacher has become thoroughly acquainted with the pe- 
culiarities of the pupils and of the district, so as to be 
able to perform the best service ; but at the commence- 
ment of the next term another comes in, and the process 
of making the acquaintance of the pupils is repeated. 
Teachers employed for only a single term at one place 
take comparatively little interest in their work, and have 
but little incentive to improvement. The people, accus- 
tomed to migratory teachers, show them scant courtesy 
or ignore them altogether, and the school is altogether 



378 PEINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 

lacking in that mental vigor and higli moral tone which 
would result from the interest and cooperation of teach- 
er, pupil, and parent. 

The true policy in regard to the employment of 
teachers would seem to be the payment of the highest 
wages that the district can afford, the standard of abili- 
ty to pay being an enlightened appreciation of the value 
of education ; the employment of the best teacher which 
the money will secure ; and the retention of the teacher 
for the longest possible time. All proper encourage- 
ment and facilities should be given the teacher for at- 
tending Institutes and special summer schools, and a 
lively interest should be shown by the parents in the 
teacher's work. A new idea or a new method intro- 
duced should be judged by its results, and not denounced 
in the outset. By careful attention to the selection and 
moral support of the teacher, the value of the schools 
may be more than doubled. 

Qualification of Teachees. — The one thing indis- 
pensable to the success of a school is a good teacher. In 
comparison, the functions of all other officers are of little 
moment ; and could we be sure of a supply of competent 
teachers, superintendents and examiners would at once 
become superfluous, and directors would be useful only 
in furnishing necessary supplies for the schools. Prac- 
tically, however, it is found that all teachers are not 
properly qualified, and that the utmost vigilance must 
be exercised continually to keep aspiring incompetence 
out of the schools. All the machinery of superintend- 
ence and of examinations is devised to this end; but 
when the competent teacher is once secured, the work 



COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 379 

of tlie school goes on without the aid or interference 
of any other person. 

Scientific Knowledge. — The first and lowest qualifi- 
cation demanded of teachers is that thej shall have a 
knowledge of the branches which they are expected to 
teach. It is not enough to be able to read, and so as- 
certain from the text-book whether the pupils repeat the 
text accurately, but the knowledge should be so thor- 
ough that text-books would never be a necessity in reci- 
tation. The knowledge demanded for the successful con- 
duct of even a primary school is varied and extensive. 
Its scope is shown in the appended course of study. 

Officers who have charge of the examination of 
teachers have curious experiences in the discharge of 
their duties. Persons are continually presenting them- 
selves as candidates for certificates, who cannot spell ; 
who make fearful blunders in reading the easiest narra- 
tive ; who are not able to solve the simplest problems 
of arithmetic outside of the accustomed routine, and 
who continually blunder in expression both orally and 
in writing. Such persons are usually very persistent in 
their demands, and not unfrequently the refusal of a 
certificate is followed by the denunciation of the office. 
The literary qualifications now demanded for a first- 
grade certificate are the least that any teacher of any 
grade of school should possess. 

General Culture. — ^Besides the technical knowledge 
of the branches to be taught, teachers should have a 
wide and varied culture in matters of general human 
interest. It has been well stated that no person can be 
in full possession of his own powers until he is ac- 
quainted with the history of the past ; and certainly it is 



380 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 

scarcely possible to exaggerate the importance of his- 
torical knowledge in promoting tlie interest and effi- 
ciency of the school. This knowledge in its widest 
sense includes every department of literature ; and there 
is no form of literary attainment that may not be turned 
to advantage in school processes. 

This general culture should include also a knowledge 
of the present state of affairs in the leading countries of 
the world. Our morning newspapers bring us intelli- 
gence fresh from every known part of the earth, but a 
wide knowledge of present history is necessary to profit 
by this intelligence ourselves and to turn it to good ac- 
count in teaching. Teachers in possession of this knowl- 
edge can make profitable use of newspapers, magazines, 
and everything that relates to current events, and the 
value of the school will be vastly increased by such 
processes. 

The Mental Powers. — A knowledge of the mental 
powers, their modes of activity, their limitations, and 
the order of their development, is indispensable to the 
highest success in teaching. "Without this knowledge 
good instruction may be given, but the processes are 
necessarily empirical and the work that of mere routine. 
"With it, teachers have a key to most of the educational 
problems that are continually coming up for solution ; 
they have a principle to guide them in new experiences ; 
they can adapt their work to the needs of the pupils, 
and adjust courses of study to produce the best results ; 
they are sufficient for any emergency that may arise in 
instruction, and they are not driven to make doubtful 
experiments which may increase the evils rather than 
diminish them. 



COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 381 

Professional Knowledge. — The teacher, before com- 
mencing his work, should also have a very thorough 
knowledge of the economies of instruction, such as or- 
ganization, classification, tactics, and discipline. Or- 
ganization includes the general scope of the instruction, 
the course of study, and the proper distribution of the 
studies as far as time is concerned; classification has 
reference to the division of the school in the bases of 
attainment for the purpose of recitation ; tactics consid- 
ers the movements of pupils, so that there shall be no 
interference, and no time wasted ; and discipline has to 
do with the means to secure order and promote the best 
interests of the school. Experienced teachers have 
written upon all these topics, treating them from both 
the theoretical and practical points of view ; and there 
are now so many valuable treatises readily accessible 
that no teacher can have an adequate excuse for neglect- 
ing them. 

The means of professional culture are within the 
reach of every teacher. The cost of instruction at ISTor- 
mal Schools is usually less than at other schools where 
the same branches are taught, and these schools are now 
provided in nearly all the States. In some of the States, 
in addition to the ^N^ormal Schools, there are teachers' 
classes in academies and high schools, where tuition is 
free. Another agency for the instruction of teachers is 
the Teachers' Institute, now held annually in each coun- 
ty in those States where much attention is given to 
school matters. The lowest demand that should be 
made upon teachers in regard to these agencies for pro- 
fessional culture is that they should attend the pro- 
fessional course of a normal school or academy before 



382 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 

commencing tlieir work, and that they should be con- 
stant in their attendance upon Institutes after entering 
upon their duties, and should take an active part in the 
exercises. 

Self -Improvement. — It is incumbent upon all teach- 
ers to continually study and improve themselves. This 
is especially true in regard to those who, for any cause, 
have been deprived of the opportunity for a thorough 
professional preparation. The new subjects investi- 
gated should be in the direction of natural history, 
mental philosophy, and general history and literature, 
as these are most neglected. Several of these subjects 
may be taken up in direct connection with school-work, 
and the improvement of the teacher made incidental to 
his class-duties. For example, a teacher has never 
studied botany, and he wishes to give some elementary 
instruction to a class of children upon plants. He would 
do well to procure some little work like Miss You- 
mans's " First Book in Botany," or G-ray's " How Plants 
Grow," for the purpose of getting the method of study. 
Then let him commence with the leaves, observing 
their form, edges, and structure, and so go on, by almost 
imperceptible steps, from an observation of the parts to 
a comprehension of the whole. The pupils would be 
greatly interested and improved by the process, but the 
teacher would receive the greatest benefit, and, by con- 
tinuing the process, he has the power to make up, in a 
great measure, for previous deficiencies. 

The summer schools for professional instruction 
afford teachers an admirable opportunity for studies in 
the direction pointed out, and it becomes a question of 
grave moment whether a teacher who neglects these 



COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 383 

opportunities, or who has not sufficient energy to over- 
come tlie ordinary difficulties in the way of attending 
these schools, has the desire for improvement, the energy, 
and the will, which are necessary to successful teaching. 

Details of Work. — The course of study prepared for 
country schools is founded upon the same general prin- 
ciple as that for graded schools, given at length in the 
chapter upon " Course of Study." It was necessary, 
however, to condense the longer course in regard to time, 
and the studies to be pursued, so as to adapt it to the 
needs and conditions of the country schools. The prob- 
lem to solve was to prepare a course that shall broaden 
the present instruction, introduce more rational methods, 
provide for more practical work, and stimulate teachers 
to higher endeavor, and at the same time not to set the 
standard so high as to be unattainable by a majority of 
teachers now employed, and so to act as a discourage- 
ment rather than an incentive to effort. The changes 
in the present practices which this course of study pro- 
poses are entirely practical, as has been proved by actual 
trial in many schools, and there is no good reason why 
the better results which will follow from the adoption 
of this improved course may not be realized in all parts 
of the country. 

The Alphabet. — ^Pupils should be taught to read by 
the word or the sentence methods. The unit of atten- 
tion in the former is the word, in the latter the sentence. 
The former is better known and more extensively prac- 
tised ; but the latter, which is comparatively new, is 
doubtless more philosophical, and will lead to better 
results when adopted. The details of these methods 
must be obtained from manuals of instruction or from 



384 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 

living teacliers. By either of them the letters are 
learned incidentally, while the pnpil is intent on the 
idea or thought represented, and the least possible 
amount of time is directly spent for this purpose. 

Reading. — Sentences should always be read as a 
imit, and the pupil should not be permitted to pronounce 
each word as though disconnected from the others. In 
all primary reading, pupils should fully understand the 
thought before trying to express it. They should never 
be allowed to read what they cannot understand, and 
they should always express the thought from the book, 
as they would the same thought in conversation. By 
observing these simple directions, the conventional 
school-drawl may be broken up, root and branch, and 
an onerous mechanical exercise may be changed into an 
interesting and intelligent one. 

Spelling. — An almost complete revolution is recom- 
mended in teaching the art of spelling. As soon as the 
pupil learns a single word or sentence, let him be taught 
to copy it on his slate. The first copying should be 
with the printed characters, to more quickly familiar- 
ize him with the form of the letters, but these should 
gradually give place to the script letter, so that by the 
end of the first year script letters are used exclusively. 
This copying of lessons from the chart and book should 
be continued as a daily exercise for at least three years, 
although it will not be necessary to copy all the lessons. 
Before the close of the first term, the pupil should also 
commence writing descriptions of objects, beginning by 
telling one thing, and increasing the amount until full 
descriptions are given. In this way spelling and pen- 
manship are both taught incidentally while other lessons 



COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 385 

are studied, and the time for teacliing tliem directly is 
saved. By this method the pupil never guesses at the 
spelling of a word ; never spells orally except with the 
written or printed characters before him ; never hears 
or sees a misspelled word ; and he spells everj'- word he 
knows correctly. The words that he does not know, he 
does not try to spell until he has looked them out, and 
this leads to good spelling all the time. 

Ohject-Lessons. — The object-lessons are systematized, 
and from the very first are made to include the elements 
of the sciences. They are made so progressive that any 
teacher of ordinary intelligence can give them, and 
gradually become acquainted with the science of which 
they form a part in the way already pointed out. More 
or less time may be given to this part of the instruction, 
depending upon the condition of the school and the skill 
of the teachers. It may be made to constitute the best 
half of teaching, awakening mental activity and storing 
the mind with the most useful knowledge. These ob- 
ject-lessons may frequently be made general for the 
whole school, thus effecting another saving in time. 

Rural Affairs. — It is a fact much to be deplored 
that in country schools there are no exercises which take 
into consideration country life. The occupation which 
absorbs the greater part of the life of the people, and 
all its varied and contingent interests, are scarcely recog- 
nized in school-work. Children fresh from the farm, 
with an extensive but unsystematized knowledge of the 
farm processes, and an active interest in them, are set to 
tasks which have no relations to these activities, and 
which usually are abstract and uninteresting. A rational 
system of instruction would seem to indicate that the 
IT 



386 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 

first step in the school-work shall be to make the child 
conscious of what he already knows, to arrange the 
knowledge in proper order, and to stimulate observation 
and inquiry in the very direction in which the mind 
has already been developed. 

These country children know a great deal about 
plants, their names, their forms, their uses, and their 
manner of growth. A little stimulus only is necessary 
to excite a great interest in the general subject of plant- 
life, leading on by short steps to systematic botany and 
vegetable physiology. They know also a great deal 
about domestic animals, their characteristics, their habits, 
and their products. Starting from this knowledge it is 
easy to lead them to make further investigations in the 
same direction, cultivating their perceptive powers in 
the most efficient manner, and storing their minds with 
knowledge that reaches out toward the material world 
on the one side, and toward the phenomena of life upon 
the other, and indispensable as a basis to a wide and 
general culture. The knowledge which the child has 
in regard to bees and other insects ; to the succession of 
farm processes from seed-time to harvest ; to the manip- 
ulations necessary to produce a crop and prepare it for 
the market ; and to the processes and products of 
household labor and economy — all can be turned to 
good account in the process of education, doubling 
the interest in study and increasing the products mani- 
fold. 

In following this method, the teacher is but obeying 
one of the most fundamental of all the laws of mental 
development, proceeding from the known to the un- 
known, and making the previous experience of the child 



COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 387 

the basis for its futnre growth. Besides the advantage 
to the child itself, this method aids education in other 
ways. It takes away from instruction the reproach of 
being unpractical, it excites an interest in all school 
affairs on the part of parents, and it leads to continually 
more intelligent action in home and farm affairs. We 
may hope it will also have the effect of leading to a 
higher appreciation of country life and of arresting the 
present tendency of migration toward the cities, and of 
the abandonment of the farms for trade or for the pro- 
fessions. 



SPECIAL COURSE OF STUDY. 

FmsT Grade. 

LAI^GUAGE. 

Beading. — Words and sentences learned from the 
blackboard and charts. Letters learned incidentally — 
first in promiscuous order — second in the order of the 
alphabet. First reader completed. 

Writing. — ^Words of the lesson printed upon the 
slate the first term — written afterward. Script letters 
gradually introduced so as to be exclusively used at the 
end of the year. Description of objects written during 
the last term. 

ARITHMETIC. 

Lessons in Nmnber. — Counting to 100. Combina- 
tions by addition, subtraction, multiphcation, and divi- 
sion to 10 with objects, l^umbers written to 100. 



388 PEINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 

OBJECT-LESSONS. 

Miscellaneous. — One familiar object described dailj : 
its form — size — color — uses — parts — uses of parts. De- 
scription in connected sentences both oral and in writ- 
ing. 

Animals. — Parts of the human body — ^the dog — ^the 
cat — ^the cow — the horse — parts compared and differ- 
ences noted — ^terms carnivorous and herbivorous devel- 
oped. The rabbit — ^the rat — ^term rodent applied. Other 
known animals examined and compared. 

Plants. — Leaves, their form and structure, and the 
different parts. 

Place. — Position of objects in the room — position 
of parts of the room — direction developed — points of 
direction — map of room made upon the board and 
slates. 

Size. — Inch, foot, yard, and rod measures introduced 
and used. 

Second Geade. 
language. 
Reading. — Second reader commenced and complet- 
ed. Special attention given to the cultivation of pleasant 
tones, and to drill in the vowel elements. 

Writing. — Lessons copied from the book, and de- 
scription of objects written daily. Attention given to 
the form, size, and connection of the letters. 

AEITHMETIC. 

Lessons in Number. — Addition, subtraction, and 
multiplication tables to 10 constructed by pupils. Prac- 
tice in these rules. 



COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 389 

OBJECT-LESSONS. 

Animals. — Studies of animals continned by means 
of pictures : the lion — the tiger — the elephant — the ze- 
bra — ^the deer — the bear — the monkey. Familiar birds 
examined and described : the hen — the turkey — the 
goose — the duck — the robin — parts compared, and com- 
pared with other animals. Frogs and lizards examined 
and compared with the other animals previously 
studied. 

Plants. — The stem — branches — roots and bark ex- 
amined and described. Garden yegetables : names — uses 
— parts of each used for food. 

Place. — The school-room measured. Ideas of a 
scale developed — map of the school-room drawn to a 
scale. The school-yard and surroundings studied in 
regard to direction — measurements made and map 
drawn. 

Size. — Measures of capacity, gill, pint, quart, gallon, 
peck, and bushel introduced and used. 

Miscellaneous objects examined in reference to qual- 
ities as given in the general course. 



Third Geade. 
language. 
Peading. — Third reader commenced. Special drill 
in the consonant elements. Exercises varied by reading 
from children's books and magazines. 

Writing. — Topics discussed in class and afterward 
written. One written exercise daily. All new words 
written when introduced. Impromptu written exer- 
cises. 



390 PKINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 

AKITHMETIC. 

numbers. — Division-table to 10 constructed. Prac- 
tice in multiplication and divison. 

OBJECT-LESSONS. 

Animals. — Birds classified. Eeptiles and fishes ex- 
amined, and parts compared with other animals. The 
term ^vertebrate developed and applied. 

Plants. — Seeds of plants, kinds and uses. The dif- 
ferent kinds of grain and vegetables used for food. 
Other common plants examined and described. Divi- 
sion into trees, shrubs, and herbs. 

Place. — Route of each pupil from home to 
school described and map drawn. E'atural divis- 
ion of land and water objectively described. The 
school district and township described and maps 
drawn. 

Size. — Measures of capacity reviewed. Square and 
cubic measures introduced and used. 



FouETH Geade. 

LANGUAGE. 

Heading. — Third reader completed. Miscellaneous 
reading from books, newspapers, and magazines. Par- 
ticular attention constantly given to pleasant tones, dis- 
tinctness of articulation, and punctuation. 

Writing. — One written exercise each day — descrip- 
tion of objects and events — reproductions of object-les- 
sons — ^impromptu work. Special attention given to use 
of capitals and of the period. All new words written 
when introduced. 



COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 391 

AKITHMETIC. 

Fundamental rules reviewed. Special practice in 
division. Prime numbers. Greatest common divisor 
and least common multiple. 

OBJECT-LESSONS. 

Animals, — Insects, their form and habits — the term 
articulate developed and used. Clams, oysters, and 
snails — the term tnollusk introduced. A star-fish ex- 
amined. The term radiate developed Division of 
animals into vertebrates, articulates, moPusks and ra- 
diates. 

Plants. — How plants grow — exogens and endogens. 
Evergreen and deciduous. Uses of the different parts 
— ^flow of sap. 

Geography. — The state and changes of the weather. 
The country: surface — general products — occupations 
of the people — civil officers — map. 

Weight. — Objective introduction of avoirdupois, 
troy, and apothecaries' weight. Tlie different denomi- 
nations made the basis of exercises in number. 

Fifth Geade. 
language. 
Reading. — Fourth reader commenced. Historical 
and biographical sketches read from books and maga- 
zines. Care must be taken that the selections are such 
as will interest the pupils. 

Writing. — One exercise derived from the object- 
lessons each day. Written descriptions of such indus- 
trial occupations as the pupils are best acquainted with. 



392 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 

Special attention to punctuation. Copy-books 'Nos. I. 
and II. 

AKITHMETIC. 

General review. Fractions : reductions — addition — 
subtraction — multiplication — division. • 

GEOGKAPHY. 

The State : boundaries — surface — climate — produc- 
tions. The United States. The earth as a whole : 
grand division — distribution of land and water — defi- 
nitions. 

OBJECT-LESSONS. 

Animals. — Food of animals : kinds of foods — ^liow 
obtained. Digestion and the digestive apparatus. Cir- 
culation of the blood. 

Plants. — ^Yegetable articles used for food. Where 
and how obtained. Trees : the names and character- 
istics of all the common trees. Plant-lessons made the 
basis for written exercises. 



Sixth Geade. 
language. 

heading. — Fourth reader completed. Geographi- 
cal and historical sketches read from books and maga- 
zines — news items — newspaper articles. Eeading-mat- 
ter may be selected having reference to some of the 
studies pursued. 

Writing. — One written exercise daily, founded upon 
some of the studies pursued, or upon the industrial 
occupations. Copy-books Nos. III. and lY. 



COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 393 

ARITHMETIC. 

Fractions completed and reviewed. Decimals and 
Federal money completed. 

GEOGRAPHY. 

Physical and civil description of IS^orth and South 
America. Maps drawn of each. 

PHYSIOLOGY. 

Breathing : pure air — the respiratory organs. Ani- 
mal heat : how generated — how preserved — artificial 
protection against heat and cold — clothing — ^houses — 
methods of heating houses. 

BOTANY. 

Plants considered as wild and cultivated — the terms 
indigenous and exotic developed. Flowering and flow- 
erless plants. 

Seventh Geade. 
language. 
Heading. — Fifth reader. Miscellaneous reading 
leading into the different departments of literature. 
Beading in connection with studies pursued. 

Writing. — One written exercise daily — occupations 
of men — subjects connected with the studies pursued 
— observations of animals — relating incidents — repro- 
duction of stories told or lessons previously studied. 
Copy-books INos. Y. and YI. 

AKITHMETIC. 

Denominate numbers and percentage. 



394 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 
GEOGEAPHY. 

Physical and civil descriptions of Europe and 
Asia. Map drawn of each. 

PHYSIOLOGY. 

The bones — ^muscles — special structure of the hand 
and foot. Eeview of digestion and circulation. The 
skin — the nervous system — ^nerves of special sense. 



Eighth Geade. 

language. 

Reading. — Miscellaneous reading, leading to the 
study of literature. Beautiful specimens of prose and 
poetry learned and recited. Eeading in connection 
with the studies pursued. 

Writing. — One written exercise daily. Sketches of 
natural history — biography. There need be no set les- 
sons in penmanship in this grade or above. The com- 
position exercises afford sufficient practice in writing, 

AEITHMETIC. 

Percentage completed in its application to interest 
and to various forms of business. Proportion, its prin- 
ciples and applications. 

PHILOSOPHY. 

Objective presentation of forces of various kinds 
and their modes of action. Heat and its effect upon 
bodies. 



COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 395 

GEOGRAPHY. 

Physical and civil. Geograpliy of Africa and Oce- 
anica. Special study of United States. 



E'iNTH Grade. 

LANGUAGE. 

Reading. — Miscellaneous reading leading into Ktera- 
ture. Classifications of known authors according to sub- 
ject. 

Writing. — One written exercise daily. Subjects 
connected with natural history or literature. 

Grammar. — Analysis of language from the basis of 
thought. Elements of the sentence. Parts of speech. 
Syntax. 

AEirHMETIC. 

Mensuration. Miscellaneous examples. General 
arithmetic reviewed. Mental arithmetic. 

GEOGEAPHT. 

Physical geography. Forces at work changing the 
surface of the earth, Keliefs and drainage. The ocean 
and the atmosphere. Distribution of plants, animals, 
and man. 

UNITED STATES HISTORY. 

Aboriginal America. Discoveries. Settlements. 
Wars. The Eevolution. The Constitution. The ad- 
ministration. History of politics, inventions, arts. Ed- 
ucation and literature. 

THE END. 



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Lockyers Astronomy. 

AMEBIC AN EDITION. 

"This is by far the clearest and best manual of Astronomy "w* 

have ever seen. A child may understand it— and yet 

it contains information which will be new to 

all who have not time to follow the 

latest discoveries." — New 

York Daily Times. 

The opinion of the critic of the Times, given above 
is that of all who have examined this sterling school- 
book, which is winning golden opinions everywhere. 
Out of hosts of letters, we have space for the following 
only:— 

"Lockyer's Elements of Astronomy is a work of rare excellence. As a text-book for 
the use of schools it is unsurpassed by any work on that subject with which I am ac- 
quainted."— Pkof. John S. Haet, iState Normal School, Trenton, If. J. 

" I think it an excellent work — ^well calculated for class use by pupils of an academic 
grade. The arrangement and typography are worthy of especial commendation. It is 
a decided success.""'— S. B. Howe, Supt. of Schools, Schenectady, N. Y. 

"It is the test school-book on Astronomy that I ever saw. The spectra of the sun, 
stars, and nebulae, are worth the price of the book. The diagrams are excellent. I 
deem it superior to all other books on that science with which I am acquainted. Of 
course I shall use it." — "W. H. Pitt, A. 31., Princ. Friendship Academy. 

"I have examined with much satisfaction the admirable elementary treatise on As- 
tronomy by Lockyer. It furnishes the reader with the means of learning in a short 
time the great features of the modern progress of Astronomy. No book (except, per- 
haps, Youmans's New Chemistry) has appeared, which so easily, yet thoroughly, pre- 
pares the reader for the subsequent study of that mighty auxiliary to modern science — 
spectrum-analysis. Moreover it presents, in a clear and succinct style, the relations of 
the various parts of the stellar universe, besides inducting the learner into that neglected 
branch of Astronomy known as Geography of the Heavens. Its illustrations are genu- 
ine aids to the comprehension of the subject-matter." — David Beattie, Supt. Troy 
{N F.) City Schools. 

" I have examined it with care, and find it admirably adapted for use in schools. It 
Js so plainly vrritten and so fully illustrated as to render it specially suited for beginners 
in the science, and, at the same time, profitable for advanced students." — Pkof. C. StA' 
LET, Union College. 

" It is a clear and beautiful unfolding of a profound and fascinating subject. It 
eeems to me admirably adapted to the academic grade of students. Not attempting to 
discuss those problems and theories of the science for which such pupils have neither 
the time nor the capacity, the author has given an outline of the subject that is clear, 
sufllciently complete, and thoroughly modem."— Prof. Bradley, Princ. Albany Fre4 
Academ/y. 



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